SF487  .L75 

c.l 

Lippincott , 

William 

Adams,  1882-1931. 

Progressive 

poultry 

raising, 

1923. 

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National  Poultry  Associations 


American  Poultry  Association,  Mrs.  Thos.  F.  Riggs,  Secretary,  319 
Citizens  Trust  BIdg.,  Fort  Wayne,  Ind. 

Blue  Andalusian  Club  of  America,  Voris  Morrison,  Secretary,  Ram- 
sey, 111. 

United  Ancona  Club,  R.W.Van  Hossen,  Secretary,  Franklinville,  N.Y. 

International  Baby  Chick  Assn.,  Fred  H.  Thayer,  Secretary,  Balti- 
more, Md. 

National  Bantam  Association,  J.  Hart  Welch,  Secretary,  Douglaston, 
L.  I,  N.Y. 

American  Game  Bantam  Club,  J.  K.  Brokaw,  Secretary,  Somerville, 
N.J. 

American  Light  Brahma  Club,  Harvey  C.  Wood,  Secretary,  Bound 
Brook,  N.J. 

American  Buckeye  Club,  E.  F.  Trimble,  Secretary,  Benton,  Ky. 

American  Buttercup  Club,  H.  J.  Lalone,  Secretary,  Potsdam,  N.  Y. 

American  Cornish  Club,  Fred  H.  Schrer,  Secretary,  Utica,  N.  Y. 

National  American  Dominque  Club,  C.  W.  Boose,  Secretary,  29 
Park  St.,  Lewiston,  Mo. 

American  Guinea  Club,  Edward  R.  Flint,  Secretary,  Flindell  Farm, 
Tunbridge,  Vt. 

National  Game  Club,  E.  J.  W.  Dietz,  Secretary,  736  Cornelia  Ave., 
Chicago,  III. 

Jersey  Black  Giant  Club,  M.  L.  Chapman,  Secretary,  Trenton  Jet., 
N.J. 

American  Houdan  Club,  Daniel  P.  Shove,  Secretary,  Fall  River, 
Mass. 

Hamburg  Fanciers  Club,  Robert  C.  Morse,  Secretary,  19  Congress 
St.,  Boston,  Mass. 

American  Incubators  Manufacturers  Assn.,E.  L.  Coatsworth,  Secre- 
tary, care  Queen  Incubator  Co.,  Lincoln,  Nebr. 

American  Java  Association,  Seth  W.  Morton,  Secretary,  P.  O.  Box 
587,  Albany,  N.  Y. 

National  Black  Langshan  Club,  Wm.  Buddenhagen,  Secretary, 
Brooklyn  Station  R.  R.  2,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

American  Black  Leghorn  Club,  G.  B.  Wadsworth,  Secretary,  Hemp- 
stead, L.  I.,  N.  Y. 

American  Buff  Leghorn  Club,  Geo.  S.  Barnes,  Secretary,  Battle 
Creek,  Mich. 

American  Rose  Comb  White  Leghorn  Club,  J.  M.  Chase,  Secretary, 
Wellkill,  N.  Y. 

American  Single  Comb  Brown  Leghorn  Club,  C.  C.  Gresham,  Secre- 
tary, Parkville,  Mo. 

National  Single  Comb  White  Leghorn  Club,  A,  F.  Rolf,  Secretary, 
Box  1 104,  New  Orleans,  La. 

American  Single  Comb  White  Minorca  Club,  G.  G.  Truman,  Secre- 
tary, Perrysville,  Ohio. 

International  Single  Comb  Black  Minorca  Club,  H.  S.  G.  McCart- 
ney, Secretary,  Hall  of  Records,  Los  Angeles,  Cal.  ^ 


{Continued  on  back  cov 


—A 


A  Prize  White  Plymouth  Rock. 


PROGRESSIVE 
POULTRY  RAISING 

BY 

WILLIAM    A.  LIPPINCOTT 

PROFESSOR  OF  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 
KANSAS  STATE  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE 


ARMOUR'S  LIVESTOCK  BUREAU 

EDWARD  N.  WENTWORTH.  Director 

UNION   STOCK  YARDS 

CHICAGO,  ILLINOIS 

1923 

Requisition  No.  $08,266 


Introduction 

POULTRY  has  been  one  of  the  chief  sources  of  human  food 
the  world  over,  even  during  the  days  before  history  was  re- 
corded. In  early  America  nearly  every  family  had  a  small 
flock,  but  the  rapid  industrial  expansion  of  the  United  States  follow- 
ing the  Civil  War  brought  about  a  congestion  of  our  population 
into  restricted  areas  which  prevented  the  production  of  eggs  and 
poultry  by  each  family. 

Consequently,  a  commercial  demand  developed  from  these 
people  that  was  fundamental  in  the  growth  of  the  modern  marketing 
services,  especially  artificial  refrigeration.  The  discovery  that  eggs 
can  be  preserved  when  kept  cold,  the  building  of  cold  storage  ware- 
houses to  prepare  for  periods  of  scarcity,  and  the  invention  of  the 
refrigerator  car,  have  all  played  their  part  in  supplying  the  city 
population  with  poultry  necessities.  Armour  and  Company  has 
been  no  small  factor  in  the  service  of  storing  and  transporting  these 
foods.  Every  family  now  considers  eggs  a  daily  necessity,  and, 
thanks  to  modern  methods,  the  supply  is  daily  forthcoming. 

This  development  in  marketing  poultry  produce  has  had  the 
direct  effect  of  increasing  production.  Instead  of  growing  just 
enough  poultry  to  supply  the  family  needs,  it  has  been  found  profita- 
ble to  enlarge  this  activity  to  a  point  that  provides  a  sure  and  steady 
source  of  income.  The  average  annual  return  from  sales  of  poultry 
and  eggs  for  all  farms  in  the  United  States  is  approximately  $140, 
while  many  general  farms  receive  $500  to  $1,000  from  this  source. 
The  value  of  all  poultry  products  annually  produced  in  America 
is  now  over  one  billion  dollars. 

This  book  is  designed  to  foster  the  production  of  poultry  prod- 
ucts of  a  kind  needed  to  meet  the  demand  of  the  consuming  public, 
to  supply  a  higher  grade  fowl  for  the  farmers'  tables  and  to  bring 
a  higher  return  to  those  engaged  in  poultry  raising.  The  author, 
William  A.  Lippincott,  is  Professor  of  Poultry  Husbandry  at  the 
Kansas  State  Agricultural  College  and  Secretary  of  the  Interna- 
tional Poultry  Instructors'  and  Investigators'  Association.  He 
is  the  author  of  "Poultry  Production,"  one  of  the  most  widely  used 
text-books  on  poultry 'raising,  and  the  courtesy  of  its  publishers.  Lea 
&z  Febiger,  Philadelphia,  is  hereby  acknowledged  in  permitting  the  use 
of  certain  material  from  this  work. — H.  S.  JOHNSON,  Manager; 
Butter,  Cheese,  Egg  and  Poultry  Department,  Armour  and  Company. 


PROGRESSIVE         POULTRY        RAISING 

Chapter  I 

History  of  American  Poultry 
Production 

Place  in  System  of  Farming — A  farm  without 
poultry  is  unusual.  In  early  days  a  home  without  it 
was  just  as  much  so.  With  the  growth  of  the  towns 
and  cities,  the  development  of  the  refrigerator  car  and 
of  the  egg  packing  industry,  with  its  cold  storage  facili- 
ties, the  town  and  city  dwellers  came  to  depend  upon 
the  people  of  the  open  country  for  the  production  of 
poultry  and  eggs. 

In  the  beginning,  the  farmer  or  his  wife  simply 
sold  the  surplus  from  the  flock  which  supplied  the 
family  needs.  This  is  still  largely  true,  though  the 
size  of  the  flock  has  grown  and  the  surplus  has  increased 
as  the  prices  for  poultry  products  have  risen.  Fowls 
have  received  increasing  recognition  as  a  means  of 
marketing  waste  grains,  grasshoppers  and  other  insects. 
Moreover  as  consumers  of  specialized  farm  crops,  fowls 
provide  one  of  the  most  economical  means  of  trans- 
forming grains  and  cereals  into  high  priced  products. 

Place  of  Poultry  Husbandry  in  Commerce — 

Unfortunately  for  consumptive  demand  the  produc- 
tion of  poultry  and  eggs  is  largely  seasonal.  The  bulk 
of  the  year's  lay  comes  between  the  first  of  February 
and  the  first  of  August  in  most  states.  The  poultry 
crop  comes  to  market  between  the  first  of  August  and 
the  Holidays,  yet  people  need  these  highly  perishable 
products  the  year  around.  It  is  artificial  refrigeration 
which  makes  it  possible  for  the  farmer  to  sell  eggs  in 
April  and  live  poultry  in  November  at  prices  that  are 
profitable,  and  for  city  folks  to  buy  eggs  in  December 
and  broilers  in  February  at  prices  which  are  not  pro- 
hibitive.   The  cold  storage  houses  are  the  city's  cellars. 

?>'^  ^v%  I  12400 


PROGRESSIVE        POULTRY        RAISING 

Early  Poultry  History  in  America — Poultry 
raising  in  the  United  States  has  been  a  home  industry 
from  the  very  beginning.  It  appeared  in  this  country 
at  least  as  soon  as  the  first  homes  were  established  in, 
Jamestown  in  1607.  The  entire  product  of  the  flock, 
including  the  feathers,  was  used  at  home.  Poultry 
production  has  never  been  a  frontier  occupation  in  the 
sense  that  beef  production  has,  or  to  a  less  degree, 
wheat  production.  Both  of  these  tend  ultimately  to 
be  replaced  by  crops  yielding  more  food  units  per  acre. 
Eggs  and  poultry  have  always  been,  for  the  most  part, 
by-products  of  a  general  agriculture.  It  was  not  until 
long  after  most  of  the  present-day  industries  which 
emanated  from  the  farm,  had  become  fairly  well  estab- 
lished, that  poultry  raising,  with  its  associated  indus- 
tries, began  to  be  accounted  of  major  importance  and 
recognized  as  of  broad  commercial  value. 

This  was  largely  due  to  two  associated  causes. 
The  first  was  the  high  perishability  of  both  poultry 
and  eggs,  and  the  second  was  the  poor  means  of  trans- 
portation in  early  days.  The  commercial  development 
of  the  industry  is  entirely  dependent  upon  present-day 
railroad  facilities,  and  the  history  of  its  development 
has  very  largely  paralleled  the  history  of  railroad 
development,  and  has  advanced  in  step  with  the  im- 
provement of  refrigerator  cars.  It  was  not  until  about 
i86q,  when  the  refrigerator  was  first  brought  into  use 
for  long  distance  hauling,  that  means  were  afforded 
for  transporting  poultry  products  from  the  farm  to 
distant  cities,  and  production,  beyond  that  demanded 
by  home  needs,  became  an  object,  and  poultry  a  source, 
of  any  considerable  money  income. 

Later  Development  of  Poultry  Production — 

The  early  phase  of  the  development  of  poultry  produc- 
tion may  be  designated  as  the  "home  poultry"  phase. 
With  the  advent  of  the  refrigerator  car  and  the  possi- 

FOUT 


PROGRESSIVE        POULTRY        RAISING 

bility  of  marketing  surplus  products  in  distant  cities 
there  appeared  a  growing  tendency  to  produce  more 
eggs  and  poultry  on  farms  than  were  necessary  for 
home  needs,  and  to  market  the  surplus.  This  was  the 
beginning  of  the  "farm  poultry"  phase  in  the  history 
of  poultry  production.  It  is  the  phase  which  predomi- 
nates over  much  of  the  United  States  to-day. 

In  some  sections,  however,  the  evolution  has  gone 
further  and  farms  upon  which  poultry  and  eggs  are  the 
principal  products  and  main  source  of  income  are  quite 
common.  Such  sections  have  already  entered  the 
third  and  last  phase  of  the  industry's  development  in 
which  poultry  has  become  a  specialty  and  which  may 
be  referred  to  as  the  "poultry  farm"  phase. 

The  outlet  for  poultry  products  has  from  the  first 
been  a  steadily  increasing  one,  and  the  need  to-day  is 
for  more,  larger,  and  better  farm  flocks.  The  general  farm 
that  is  understocked  on  poultry  is  not  fully  efficient, 
because  it  is  failing  to  utilize  its  by-products.  Worms, 
weedseeds  and  windfalls  can  command  good  prices  when 
transformed  into  poultry  and  eggs. 

Kind  of  Stock  for  the  Farm — Except  in  the  case 
of  the  strictly  meat  birds,  such  as  the  turkey,  duck 
(with  the  possible  exception  of  the  Runner)  and  goose, 
the  return  from  the  eggs  sold  constitutes  about  two- 
thirds  of  the  income  for  poultry  products,  while  the 
carcasses  sold,  whether  alive  or  dressed,  furnish  the 
other  one-third.  The  egg  is  undoubtedly  the  more 
profitable  of  the  two  products  and  the  farm  flock  should 
always  be  good  layers.  Having  in  mind  his  own  home 
needs,  however,  the  farmer  usually  wishes  stock  that 
furnishes  a  sizable  carcass  as  well  as  a  good  number  of 
eggs.  He  should  also  have  in  mind  that  quick  gains 
are  the  cheapest  gains  with  chickens  as  well  as  hogs 
and  cattle,  and  early  maturity  an  asset  to  any  flock. 


Fne 


PROGRESSIVE        POULTRY        RAISING 

Chapter  II 

Breeds  of  Poultry 

Early  American  Poultry — There  is  little  informa- 
tion to  be  found  concerning  the  status  of  poultry  pre- 
vious to  the  rise  of  the  breeds  in  the  middle  of  the  last 
century.  According  to  Carver's  Principles  of  Rural 
Economics,  "with  the  exception  of  the  turkey  all  our 
farm  animals  and  poultry  were  imported  from  the  Old 
World.  The  first  to  reach  the  New  World  were  brought 
by  Columbus  on  his  second  voyage  in  1493.  *  *  * 
Chickens,  ducks  and  geese  are  known  to  have  been 
brought  at  that  time."  According  to  Robinson,  the 
ordinary  native  stocks  of  fowls,  ducks,  geese  and  tur- 
keys in  America  at  the  time  of  the  general  awakening 
of  interest  in  improved  poultry  and  for  some  years 
after,  were,  even  when  compared  with  the  average 
mongrel  stocks  of  to-day,  small  birds  of  distinctly 
inferior  table  qualities,  and  usually  inferior  also  in  egg 
production.  This  degeneracy  of  stock  was  due  to 
the  common  practice  of  selecting  for  the  table  first. 
That  such  practice,  persistently  followed,  did  not 
quickly  run  the  stock  out  was  due  to  these  saving  cir- 
cumstances; (i)  the  natural  tendency  of  the  stock 
to  improve  under  the  very  favorable  conditions  which 
small  flocks  at  liberty  on  farms  enjoyed,  and  (2)  the 
occasional  introduction  of  blood  of  improved  native 
stock. 

Now  and  then  a  person  particularly  interested  in 
poultry  would  breed  his  flock  to  one  type  or  color,  but 
the  prevailing  belief  was  that  the  best  breeding  was  that 
which  combined  the  greatest  variety. 

Breeds  and  Classes — There  are  four  classes  of 
chickens  that  have  found  favor  on  general  farms. 
These  are  the  Asiatics  which  include  the  Brahmas, 

Six 


PROGRESSIVE        POULTRY        RAISING 

Cochins  and  Langshans;  the  Mediterraneans  which 
include  the  Leghorns,  Minorcas,  Andalusians,  Anconas 
and  Spanish;  the  Americans  which  include  the  Ply- 
mouth Rocks,  Wyandottes,  Rhode  Island  Reds, 
Dominiques,  Buckeyes,  and  the  Javas;  and  the  Eng- 
lish which  include  the  Orpingtons,  Dorkings,  Sussex, 
Cornish  and  Redcaps. 

The  Asiatic  breeds  have  not  been  as  popular  for 
general  farm  use  of  late  as  they  formerly  were.  They 
are  for  the  most  part  large,  slow-maturing  birds  which 
lay  only  indifferently  and  are  greatly  given  to  broodi- 
ness.  The  loose,  heavy  feathers  also  furnish  an  ideal 
refuge  for  lice  and  render  it  more  difficult  to  keep  the 
flock  free  from  parasites. 

Of  the  American  breeds  the  Plymouth  Rocks, 
Wyandottes,  and  Rhode  Island  Reds  are  found  in  farm 
flocks  with  frequency.  Members  of  these  breeds  are 
intermediate  in  size  between  the  Asiatics  and  the  Medi- 
terraneans, giving  a  carcass  of  desirable  size  and  quality 
for  marketing  or  for  home  use.  While  the  average  egg 
production  of  these  breeds  is  not  so  high  as  in  the  case 
of  the  Leghorns,  there  are  strains  and  families  which 
are  great  producers.  At  the  Vineland,  N.  J.,  contest 
a  White  Plymouth  Rock  laid  301  eggs  during  her  first 
laying  year  and  a  Barred  Plymouth  Rock  accomplished 
the  feat  of  producing  501  eggs  in  two  years,  these  being 
the  highest  one-year  and  two-year  records  at  the  con- 
test. There  appears  to  be  no  reason  why  a  satisfactory 
egg  production  and  a  sizable  carcass  should  not  be  found  in 
the  same  flock. 

Among  the  English  breeds  the  Orpington  is  the  only 
one  extensively  used  for  the  farm  flocks.  The  Orping- 
tons are  quite  similar  in  general  characteristics  to  the 
American  breeds,  being  a  little  heavier  than  the  Ply- 
mouth Rocks,  a  little  slower  maturing  and  rather  more 
given  to  broodiness.  Like  the  Plymouth  Rocks,  they 
are  fair  layers  of  rather  light  brown  eggs. 

Seven 


PROGRESSIVE        POULTRY        RAISING 

The  Mediterranean  breeds  are  smaller  than  the 
English,  American  and  Asiatic  breeds  and  much  more 
active  than  the  latter.  Taking  the  White  Leghorn  as 
representative  of  the  class  (this  variety  probably  being 
bred  in  larger  numbers  than  all  the  other  Mediter- 
raneans combined),  the  average  egg  production  is 
larger  than  for  any  other  class.  The  Leghorn,  how- 
ever, finds  its  popularity  on  specialty  farms  where  eggs 
are  the  main  cash  crop,  rather  than  on  general  farms. 
The  Leghorn  has  not  proved  popular  as  a  general  farm 
fowl  largely  for  two  reasons.  The  first  is  that  as 
usually  bred,  it  furnishes  a  rather  small  carcass  for 
table  use  and  second,  it  is  so  flighty  as  to  be  difficult 
of  control.  It  is  possible,  however,  to  breed  a  Leghorn 
of  good  size  which  is  fairly  desirable  for  table  use.  The 
fact  that  it  lays  a  pure  white  egg  which  is  in  demand 
in  certain  extreme  Eastern  and  Western  markets  makes 
it  desirable  in  those  sections. 

Egg  Laying  Records  of  the  Common  Breeds — 

A  recent  bulletin  (No.  338)  from  the  New  Jersey  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station  gives  some  very  interest- 
ing figures  on  the  representatives  of  the  various  breeds 
entered  in  the  egg  laying  contest  at  Vineland,  N.  J. 
The  Plymouth  Rocks  included  the  Barred,  White  and 
Columbian  varieties.  The  Wyandottes  were  White 
and  Columbians.  The  Rhode  Island  Reds  were  all 
Single  Combs  and  the  Leghorns  were  mostly  Single 
Comb  Whites,  with  a  very  few  Single  Comb  Buffs  and 
Blacks.  In  judging  the  results  of  this  contest  it  should 
be  remembered  that  the  figures  show  the  returns  from 
eggs  alone  and  not  what  the  result  would  he  upon  marketing 
the  flock  after  the  profitable  egg  producing  period.  The 
numbers  of  representatives  of  each  breed,  the  average 
first-year  production,  feed  consumption  and  financial 
returns  were  as  follows: 

Eight 


PROGRESSIVE        POULTRY        RAISING 


Table  I 

Plymouth    Wyan-    Rhode  Island    Leg- 
Rocks        doUes  Reds  horns 

Number  of  Birds 170  150  80  600 

Number  of  Eggs  per  Bird 155.0  144.3  150.6  169.7 

Per  Cent  Production 42.5  39.5  41.2  46.5 

Per  Cent  of  200-Egg  Hens 14.7  8.6  11.2  22.8 

Weight  of  Eggs  per  Bird  (lbs.) 19.73  17.98  19.74  21.36 

AverageWeightof  Birds  (lbs.) 5.94  4.99  5.31  3.49 

Feed  Consumed  per  Bird  (lbs.) 89 . 78  80 .  34  86 .  56  76 .  19 

Average  Cost  of  Feed  per  Bird $2.52  $2.30  $2.47  $2.19 

Pounds  of  Feed  to  1  pound  of  Eggs  .     4.6  4.6  4.5  3.5 

Actual  Price  per  Dozen  Eggs $0 .  43  $0 .  43  $0 .  43  $0 .  46 

Actual  Value  of  Eggs  per  Bird $5.46  $5.22  $5.44  $6.49 

Actual  Returns  above  Feed  per  Bird  $2.91  $2 .  92  $2 .  97  $4 .  30 

Choosing  a  Breed — The  choice  of  the  breed  or 
variety  is  largely  one  of  personal  preference  after  one 
has  decided  on  the  class  of  birds  that  will  best  meet  his 
needs.  If  a  general  purpose  fowl  for  the  average  farm 
that  will  produce  a  good  number  of  eggs  and  furnish 
a  sizable  carcass  is  looked  for,  accompanied  by  fairly 
quick  growth  and  early  maturity,  one  of  the  American 
or  English  breeds  will  meet  the  need.  If  one  looks  for- 
ward to  making  eggs  the  important  cash  crop,  one  of 
the  Mediterraneans  will  probably  be  chosen.  It  makes 
very  little  difference  in  many  sections  what  particular 
breed  and  variety  is  chosen,  the  important  problem  of 
the  progressive  poultry  raiser  being  to  secure  the  best 
breeders  possible  of  the  breed  and  variety  selected.  In 
some  sections,  however,  varieties  showing  black  pin 
feathers  are  being  discriminated  against. 

It  is  not  always  easy  to  get  hold  of  good  breeding 
stock,  from  the  farmer's  standpoint,  though  fortunately 
the  agencies  for  helping  him  in  this  regard  are  increasing 
rapidly.  Laying  contests  conducted  by  a  number  of 
the  State  Agricultural  Experiment  Stations  are  proving 
a  great  help.  Many  of  the  other  stations  are  compiling 
lists  of  breeders  who  carefully  trap-nest  and  pedigree 
their  flocks  in  regard  to  egg  production. 

Nine 


PROGRESSIVE        POULTRY        RAISING, 

Chapter  III 

Poultry  Breeding 

Methods  of  Breeding — Characteristics  to  be 
desired  in  a  farm  flock  are  in  the  order  of  their  import- 
ance: vigor,  high  production  and  uniformity.  It  is 
possible  to  secure  these  by  the  use  of  vigorous  pure- 
bred males  from  high  producing  strains  with  flocks  of 
mixed  breeding.  In  a  recent  test  at  the  Kansas  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station  it  was  possible  to  increase 
the  average  egg  production  of  what  was  a  mongrel 
flock  from  98  to  155  eggs  per  year  and  secure  uniformity 
instead  of  diversity  by  using  Barred  Plymouth  Rock 
males  from  trap-nested  stock  for  three  successive  years. 
Where  White  Leghorn  males  were  used  for  the  same 
length  of  time,  the  improvement  of  egg  production  was 
found  to  be  even  more  marked.  The  original  mongrel 
hens  gave  an  average  production  of  72  eggs.  After 
grading  by  the  use  of  purebred  single  comb  White 
Leghorn  males  for  three  years  the  flock  average  was 
increased  to  192  eggs.  The  original  mongrel  flocks 
were  a  mixture  of  red,  black  and  buff.  The  third  gener- 
ation grades  were  pure  white.  The  grade  Leghorns, 
however,  were  smaller  than  the  grade  Plymouth  Rocks 
and  not  as  desirable  from  the  market  standpoint. 

While  it  has  been  proven  that  a  poor-laying  mongrel 
flock  containing  several  types  and  colors  may  be  made 
over  into  a  high-producing  flock  of  uniform  color  that  is 
just  as  desirable  from  the  market  standpoint  as  pure- 
breds,  within  the  space  of  three  years,  the  fact  should 
not  be  overlooked  that  a  considerable  source  of  profit 
may  come  from  selling  breeding  stock.  This  can  only 
be  done  satisfactorily  where  one  keeps  purebred  stock. 
It  costs  no  more  to  house  and  feed  a  purebred  flock 
than  it  does  a  bunch  of  mongrels  or  grades  and  where 

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PROGRESSIVE    POULTRY   RAISING 

stock  can  be  disposed  of  at  satisfactory  prices,   the 
purebred  flock  will  prove  much  more  profitable. 

Culling — Whether  the  poultry  producer  keeps 
purebreds  or  grades,  he  will  increase  his  profits  very 
materially  by  culling  his  flock  closely  every  year. 
Though  the  trap  nest  is  the  most  accurate  means  of 
selecting  the  best  layers  in  the  flock,  its  use  is  only 
practicable  for  those  who  make  poultry  breeding  a 
specialty.  The  trap  nest  usually  has  no  place  on  the 
general  farm.  On  the  average,  the  pullet  laying  year 
is  more  profitable  than  any  other.  Yearlings  and  two- 
year-olds  are  likely  to  be  kept  at  an  actual  loss  unless 
they  are  carefully  culled. 

The  best  time  of  year  in  which  to  do  the  culling  is 
late  July,  August  and  early  September.  This  comes 
from  the  fact  that  the  poor  layers  are  usually  early 
molters  while  the  better  layers  as  a  general  thing  do 
not  molt  until  November  or  December.  In  general, 
therefore,  the  poor  producers  are  the  best  lookers  in  the 
late  summer,  while  the  high  layers  are  likely  to  appear 
old  and  ragged.  The  body  feathers  change  first  and 
the  main  wing  feathers  last.  As  it  requires  about  six 
weeks  to  grow  the  first  new  flight  feather  and  two 
weeks  more  for  each  succeeding  one  and  as  hens 
seldom  lay  while  molting,  it  is  possible  to  estimate 
fairly  closely  how  long  it  will  be  before  they  will  get 
into  laying  condition  again.  This  is  done  by  counting 
the  new  flight  feathers  beginning  at  the  elbow  and  sub- 
tracting the  number  of  weeks  indicated  from  24.  To 
tell  the  length  of  time  since  the  hen  stopped  laying  add 
up  the  number  of  new  flights.  The  late  molters  will 
usually  be  birds  of  good  vigor. 

A  strong  consitution  is  so  tremendously  important 
in  either  the  laying  or  breeding  flock  that  even  the 
late  molters  should  be  carefully  scrutinized  in  this 
regard.     Only    females    which    exhibit    activity    and 

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PROGRESSIVE        POULTRY        RAISING 

vitality  should  be  kept  over  for  laying  or  breeding.  All 
specimens  that  are  scrawny,  undersized,  weak  on  the 
legs,  light  in  weight,  excessively  fat,  or  which  have 
deformities  such  as  crooked  legs,  back  or  beak,  should 
be  eliminated.  It  is  well  to  dispose  of  birds  that  have 
long  toe  nails,  overhanging  eyelids,  or  any  defect  which 
handicaps  them  in  their  search  for  food.  The  long 
slender  head  (crow  head)  or  spindling  shanks  indicate 
the  lack  of  thrift  and  vigor.  Such  individuals  cannot 
be  profitable  producers.  A  bright  red  comb  and 
wattles  indicate  a  good  circulation.  The  laying  hen  is 
a  hustler  and  working  all  the  time.  She  sings  at  her 
work  and  is  usually  more  gentle  and  sociable  than  the 
non-layer. 

In  order  to  lay  a  large  number  of  eggs  a  hen  must 
have  large  organs  of  digestion  and  of  reproduction. 
In  the  live  bird  these  of  course  cannot  be  examined. 
It  goes  without  saying,  however,  that  an  individual 
cannot  have  a  large  and  well  developed  digestive  and 
reproductive  apparatus  unless  it  also  exhibits  a  capa- 
cious body.  Capacity  is  indicated  by  a  long  keel 
(breast  bone)  and  the  long,  deep  and  wide  body. 

When  a  hen  is  laying  the  point  of  the  keel  (breast 
bone)  moves  away  from  the  pelvic  bones  (lay  bones). 
When  the  hen  is  not  laying  these  come  closer  together 
and  are  less  pliable.  The  actual  distance  is  compara- 
tive only  and  varies  in  different  individuals,  depending 
on  the  size  and  the  breed.  When  the  bird  is  laying,  the 
pelvic  bones  (located  just  below  and  to  either  side  of  the 
vent)  are  quite  far  apart  and  pliable,  whereas  in  a  male 
bird  or  a  hen  that  is  not  laying,  they  are  quite  close 
together.  They  are  also  quite  thin  due  to  the  fact 
that  fat  is  not  deposited  in  this  region.  While  the 
hen  is  laying  heavily  the  skin  of  the  abdomen  is  soft  and 
pliable  in  a  good  layer  and  the  flesh  of  this  region  is 
not  firm  and  hard  to  the  touch  as  in  the  case  of  a  non- 

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PROGRESSIVE    POULTRY   RAISING 

layer,  when  considerable  masses  of  fat  are  likely  to  be 
deposited  here. 

The  abdomen  should  not  hang  down,  indicating  a 
fatty  degeneration  of  the  supporting  tissues.  Neither 
should  it  be  tucked  up,  indicating  lack  of  capacity. 
The  latter  condition  is  very  frequently  found  when  the 
keel  is  short.  The  vent  is  large  and  moist  in  a  good 
layer. 

In  the  yellow  shanked  varieties  (all  Americans  and 
Mediterraneans  except  the  black  varieties),  the  yellow 
color,  which  is  by  no  means  limited  to  the  shanks  but  is 
found  in  the  skin  as  well,  gradually  disappears  from  the 
various  parts  of  the  body  in  the  following  order: 

1.  The  vent. 

2.  The  eye  ring. 

3.  The  beak,  starting  at  the  base. 

4.  The  shanks,  beginning  at  the  toes  and  leaving 
the  back  of  the  hock  the  last. 

A  glance  at  the  latter  section  will  indicate  how 
much  the  shank  is  bleached.  Loss  of  color  from  the 
shanks  indicates  that  a  much  longer  period  of  laying 
has  elapsed  than  loss  of  color  from  the  other  sections 
named.  Generally  a  bleached  shank  indicates  that 
there  have  been  fifteen  to  twenty  weeks  of  heavy  pro- 
duction. 

When  laying,  a  hen's  comb  is  comparatively  large, 
red  and  warm  to  the  touch.  The  wattles  are  also  com- 
paratively large  and  warm,  apparently  due  to  the  func- 
tioning of  the  ovary.  Therefore  if  the  comb  is  small, 
limp  and  cool  to  the  touch  the  bird  is  not  laying.  Fre- 
quently the  comb  of  a  non-layer  is  covered  with  a  white 
scale-like  crust. 

The  characteristics  of  high  and  low  producers  have 
been  summarized  in  University  of  Missouri  Extension 
Circular  No.  70,  as  follows : 

Thirteen 


PROGRESSIVE        POULTRY        RAISING 

Characteristics  of  High  Layers — The  best  pro- 
ducing hens  will  show  all  of  the  following  character- 
istics: 

1.  Vigor — Strong,  healthy,  active,  gentle  and 
happy. 

2.  Molt — Not  molting  before  October  first. 

3.  Pigmentation — Shanks  and  beak  pale.  Ear 
lobes  showing  no  yellow. 

4.  Quality — Skin  soft,  fine  and  velvety.  Breast 
bone  thin  and  of  fine  quality.  Pin  bones  straight  and 
flexible. 

5.  Laying  condition — Abdomen  soft  and  flexible. 
Vent  moist  and  expanded.  Body  depth  four  fingers  or 
more.     Width  of  pin  bones  at  least  three  fingers. 

Characteristics  of  Poor  Layers — The  poor  pro- 
ducers in  the  flock  will  show  all  of  the  following  charac- 
teristics at  culling  time: 

1.  Vigor — Lazy,  inactive,  wild,  cross. 

2.  Molt — Beginning  to  molt  in  July,  August  or 
September. 

3.  Pigmentation — Shanks  and  beak  prominent 
yellow;  yellow  in  ear  lobes  on  Mediterranean  breeds, 
such  as  Leghorns. 

4.  Quality — Skin  thick,  dry  and  coarse.  Breast 
bone  thick  and  blunt  on  the  edge.  Pin  bones  blunt 
and  unyielding. 

5.  Laying  Condition — Abdomen  hard.  Vent  dry 
and  puckered.  Body  depth  less  than  three  fingers. 
Pin  bones  less  than  two  fingers  apart. 

The  Breeding  Pen — Where  careful  culling  is 
practiced,  the  most  satisfactory  type  of  mating  from 
the  standpoint  of  egg  production,  is  a  highly  vigorous 
cockerel  from  a  family  of  high  producers  mated  with 
yearling  hens  which  molted  late  and  gave  evidence  of 
good  vigor  and  production.  This  applies  whether  one 
is  keeping  purebreds  or  is  simply  grading  up  his  flock. 

Fourteen 


PROGRESSIVE        POULTRY        RAISING 

The  number  of  females  to  be  mated  with  one  male 
varies  with  the  class  of  stock.  For  the  Asiatics  it 
should  be  eight  to  ten.  For  the  American  and  English 
classes  it  should  be  ten  to  fifteen  and  the  Mediter- 
raneans may  be  fifteen  to  twenty.  The  hens  to  be 
mated  should  be  kept  away  from  other  males  for  at 
least  three  weeks  prior  to  the  saving  of  the  first  eggs 
for  hatching,  and  should  have  associated  with  the  males 
it  is  desired  to  breed  from,  for  at  least  ten  days,  while 
two  weeks  is  better. 

Care  of  Eggs  for  Hatching — Successful  hatching 
of  eggs  in  incubators  depends  fully  as  much  on  the 
vigor  and  vitality  of  the  parent  stock  and  the  care  of 
the  eggs  before  being  put  into  the  incubator  as  upon 
the  incubator  itself.  Successful  hatches  can  be  ex- 
pected only  when  the  birds  in  the  pens  from  which  the 
eggs  come  are  enjoying  an  abundant  health.  Poor 
hatches  are  probably  caused  more  frequently  by  poor 
breeding  stock  than  by  poor  incubators. 

Eggs  that  are  being  saved  for  hatching  should  be  of 
good  size  and  normal  in  shape  and  color.  The  egg 
starts  to  develop  at  a  temperature  between  68  and  69° 
F.  and  should  be  kept  where  the  temperature  is  below 
65°  F.  until  it  is  set.  A  good  dry  cellar  usually  fur- 
nishes the  ideal  place.  The  eggs  should  be  turned  over 
every  day  or  two  if  they  are  kept  any  length  of  time 
before  hatching.  The  sooner  the  eggs  are  incubated 
after  being  laid,  the  better,  though  they  may  usually 
be  kept,  if  under  proper  conditions,  for  a  week  or  even 
ten  days  without  injury.  If  for  any  reason  it  is  de- 
sirable to  set  dirty  eggs  they  should  be  put  into  the 
incubator  without  washing.  The  probability  of  their 
hatching  is  better  if  they  are  not  washed. 

Incubating — The  small  incubator  is  fast  replacing 
the  setting  hen  in  most  sections  of  the  country  and  in 
some  sections  is  in  turn  being  replaced  by  the  mam- 

Fijuen 


PROGRESSIVE        POULTRY        RAISING 

moth  incubator  at  the  customs  hatchery.  Buying  day- 
old  chicks  or  having  the  eggs  from  the  farm  incubated 
at  a  hatchery  is  gaining  in  popularity. 

The  small  lamp-heated  incubator  will  continue  to 
be  used  on  most  farms  for  a  good  many  years  to  come, 
however.  In  purchasing  an  incubator  it  usually  pays 
not  to  depend  on  the  very  cheapest  makes.  The 
difference  in  cost  between  a  poor  machine  and  a  good 
one  is  small  in  comparison  with  the  loss  that  may  be 
caused  by  an  inefficient  hatcher.  The  machine  should 
be  set  up  in  some  room  that  is  fairly  uniform  in  tem- 
perature. This  is  most  hkely  to  be  a  cellar.  It  should 
be  so  located  that  the  sun  cannot  strike  it  at  any  time 
of  day  and  should  be  made  perfectly  level  by  the  aid 
of  an  ordinary  carpenter's  level. 

In  the  case  of  used  machines  care  should  always  be 
taken  thoroughly  to  disinfect  with  a  3  percent  solution 
of  any  of  the  coal  tar  stock  dips.  If  a  spray  pump  is 
not  available  the  work  can  easily  be  done  by  dipping  a 
whisk  broom  in  the  disinfectant  and  flirting  into  the 
interior  of  the  machine,  making  sure  that  the  ther- 
mometer, regulator  and  the  sides,  top,  bottom  and 
all  the  trays  are  thoroughly  drenched. 

Directions  for  operating  each  make  of  machine  are 
usually  sent  out  by  the  manufacturers.  While  the 
directions  vary  somewhat  for  different  makes,  it  is  the 
intention  of  the  manufacturer  to  give  the  directions 
which  will  bring  the  best  results  for  his  particular  make 
of  machine  and  they  should,  therefore,  be  followed 
unless  some  reason  for  varying  from  them  is  found. 

At  the  beginning  of  every  season  it  is  safe  precau- 
tion to  test  the  thermometer  and  make  sure  it  is 
registering  accurately.  This  may  be  done  by  borrow- 
ing a  physician's  thermometer,  heating  some  water  to 
a  temperature  of  about  106  F.  and  moving  the  bulbs 
of  the  physician's  and  the  incubator  thermometers  back 
and  forth  through  the  water  together.     If  they  agree, 

Sixteen 


Fig.   1.      Proper  way  to  hold  a  hen  for  finding  the  distance  between 
the  pelvic  bones. 


Fig.  2.      Showing  the  v/ay  to  find  the  distance  from  the  pelvic  bones 
to  the  keel.      (Courtesy  T.    S.   Townsley,    Univ.    Mo.) 


Fig.  1,  Kansas  65,  a  mongrel  hen.     First  year  production  100  eggs. 

Fig.  2,  Kansas  16,  a  daughter  of  mongrel  hen  Kansas  65  and  a  Barred  Plymouth 

Rock  male  from  a  high-laying   family.      First  year  production  182  eggs. 
Fig.  3,  Kansas  616,   a  daughter  of  Barred  Plymouth  Rock  grade.  Kansas   16, 

and  a  Barred  Plymouth  Rock  male  from  a  high-producing  family.     First 

year  production  208  eggs. 
Fig.  4,  Kansas  664,  a  Barred  Plymouth  Rock  grade,  daughter  of  Kansas  616  and 

a  Barred  Plymouth  Rock  male  from  a  trap-nested  high-producing  family. 

First  year  production  248  eggs.  (Courtesy  Kans.  State  Agr.  Col.) 


PROGRESSIVE        POULTRY        RAISING 

it  is  safe  to  assume  that  the  incubator  thermometer  is 
all  right.  If  they  disagree,  it  will  be  the  best  plan 
to  invest  in  a  new  thermometer.  Not  infrequently 
a  thermometer  which  registers  perfectly  one  season 
may  be  found  to  be  very  inaccurate  the  following 
season. 

It  is  the  general  practice  to  start  the  machine  at  a 
temperature  of  about  102°  and  carry  it  at  that  tempera- 
ture during  the  first  week.  The  second  and  third  week 
it  is  allowed  to  run  as  near  1 03°  F.  as  possible  and  during 
the  hatch  is  likely  to  go  to  104°  F.,  which  is  a  good  tem- 
perature for  bringing  the  chicks  out.  It  should  never 
be  allowed  to  go  above  105°  F.,  which  is  the  danger 
point. 

In  all  localities  except  where  the  climate  is  very 
humid,  it  will  help  the  hatches  to  introduce  moisture 
into  the  machine.  The  most  convenient  way  of  doing 
this  is  to  place  large  shallow  galvanized  iron  trays 
below  the  egg  trays.  These  should  be  filled  with  sand 
and  the  sand  kept  puddled  with  water.  Where  pro- 
vision is  made  for  the  chicks  to  drop  down  into  the 
Nursery  below,  the  moisture  pans  should  be  removed 
on  the  18th  day. 

It  is  customary  to  turn  the  eggs  at  least  twice  a  day 
until  the  18th  day  and  to  cool  them  once.  The  turning 
may  be  done  by  removing  a  few  eggs  from  one  end  of 
the  tray,  rolling  the  eggs  in  the  tray  and  then  replacing 
those  taken  out.  This  turning  largely  prevents  the 
difficulty  known  as  "stuck  germs"  which  refers  to  the 
fact  that  as  the  egg  loses  its  moisture,  the  developing 
chick  occasionally  adheres  to  the  shell.  A  stuck  germ 
seldom,  if  ever,  hatches. 

The  cooling  of  the  eggs  is  accomplished  by  taking 
the  tray  out  of  the  machine  and  placing  it  on  a  table  or, 
where  the  regulator  does  not  interfere,  on  top  of  the 
machine.     The  eggs  should  be  allowed  to  cool  until 

Seventeen 


PROGRESSIVE        POULTRY        RAISING 

they  feel  cool  though  not  stone  cold,  to  some  sensitive 
part  of  the  body  such  as  the  lips  or  the  eyelid. 

It  is  customary  to  test  the  eggs  twice  during  the 
incubation  period,  usually  about  the  seventh  and  four- 
teenth days,  so  that  the  infertile  and  dead-germ  eggs 
may  be  removed.  The  exact  time  of  testing  is  really 
immaterial.  Some  incubator  operators  prefer  to  make 
the  test  on  the  10th  and  18th  days.  The  testing  should 
always  be  done,  however,  so  that  the  infertile  eggs  may 
be  made  use  of  by  feeding  to  other  chicks  or  the  laying 
stock  and  the  dead-germ  eggs  destroyed  before  they 
begin  to  putrefy  in  the  machine. 

After  the  18th  day  the  incubator  should  be  closed 
and  kept  closed  until  the  hatch  is  well  over  unless  some 
very  unusual  circumstance  makes  it  desirable  to  open 
it.  After  the  hatch  is  well  over  which  will  be  usually 
the  20th  day  for  Mediterranean  breeds  and  the  21st  for 
the  heavier  breeds  the  chicks  should  be  left  in  the  incu- 
bator without  feeding  for  at  least  thirty-six  hours. 

A  very  large  chick  loss  by  inexperienced  poultry 
raisers  would  be  avoided  if  they  did  not  make  the  mis- 
take of  feeding  the  chicks  too  soon  after  hatching.  At 
the  time  the  chick  breaks  its  way  out  of  the  shell  nearly 
half  of  the  original  yolk  of  the  egg  is  still  in  the  digestive 
tract  undigested.  It  usually  takes  at  least  thirty-six 
hours  for  the  digestion  and  absorption  of  this  material. 
If  the  chicks  are  fed  before  this  material  fully  absorbs  it 
is  quite  likely  to  prove  fatal  owing  to  its  fermentation 
and  putrefaction. 

Time  of  Hatching — March  and  early  April  is  the 
time  to  hatch  chicks  of  the  heavier  breeds  where  winter 
eggs  are  looked  for  from  the  pullets.  This  means  that 
they  must  be  set  in  February  and  March.  The  eggs  of 
the  Mediterranean  breeds  should  be  set  in  March  and 
the  first  three  weeks  of  April  so  that  they  will  be  out  in 
April  and  early  May.     Chicks  hatched  earlier  or  later 

Eightten 


PROGRESSIVE    POULTRY   RAISING 

may  do  well  but  the  chances  are  against  it.  Chicks 
hatched  too  early  are  likely  to  go  into  a  molt  in  the 
fall  and  not  lay  till  spring.  Late  hatched  pullets  are 
likely  not  to  come  into  laying  until  cold  weather,  in 
which  case  they  will  not  probably  lay  before  spring. 

Farm  Brooders — Two  types  of  brooders  which 
usually  meet  the  farm  poultry  raisers'  needs  are  the 
small  oil  heated  Colony  Brooder  and  the  large  coal 
heated  Colony  Brooder.  The  first  usually  has  a  capac- 
ity from  fifty  to  seventy-five  chicks  while  the  latter 
will  brood  from  400  to  600  and  even  more.  It  is  little 
more  work  to  attend  a  coal  stove  brooder  which 
will  care  for  several  hundred  chicks  than  it  is  a  small 
oil  heated  brooder.  Where  chicks  are  raised  in  any 
considerable  numbers,  it  will  take  very  much  less  labor 
to  take  care  of  them  in  comparatively  large  groups  than 
in  small  flocks,  and  where  they  have  a  good  range  and 
fresh  ground,  they  will  do  nearly,  if  not  quite,  as  well. 

An  oil-heated  brooder  should  have  lamps  with  bowls 
large  enough  to  contain  a  forty-eight-hour  supply  of 
oil.  In  windy,  stormy  weather  it  is  sometimes  difficult 
to  get  the  lamp  lit  and  the  heater  door  closed,  before 
the  wind  puts  the  lamp  out.  At  such  times,  it  is  highly 
desirable  to  let  the  lamp  burn  another  day  before  open- 
ing up  the  heater  box.  With  the  small  oil-heated 
brooders,  one  should  also  be  very  sure  that  the  chicks 
get  a  constant  supply  of  fresh  air  when  they  are  under 
the  hover.  Young  and  old  stock  both  are  highly  sensi- 
tive to  the  lack  of  ventilation. 

While  the  larger  coal-heated  brooders  usually  do 
not  interfere  with  proper  ventilation,  the  small  hovers 
with  the  cover  curtains  reaching  clear  to  the  floor  are 
frequently  very  defective  in  this  regard.  With  insuffi- 
cient ventilation,  one  can  only  expect  dopy,  unthrifty 
chicks.  With  the  coal-heated  brooder,  the  main  thing 
to  look  out  for  is  a  fire  box  large  enough  to  carry  fire  and 

Nineteen 


PROGRESSIVE        POULTRY        RAISING 

keep  up  the  temperature  over  night.  This  type  of 
Colony  brooder  particularly  meets  the  needs  of  those 
persons  who  wish  to  rear  250  to  300  pullets  or  to  buy 
perhaps  600  or  700  baby  chicks  at  one  time. 

A  used  brooder  should  be  thoroughly  disinfected 
before  the  chicks  are  put  under  it.  In  any  case,  the 
brooder  should  be  heated  up  until  it  gives  a  temperature 
of  about  1 00°  under  the  hover  and  run  two  or  three  days 
to  make  sure  that  it  can  maintain  that  temperature. 

It  is  a  good  thing  to  take  the  chicks  from  the  incu- 
bator and  put  them  under  the  hover,  at  night,  as  they 
seem  to  become  accustomed  to  the  hover  and  return 
to  it  when  chilly,  more  quickly  than  when  they  are  first 
put  under  it  in  daylight.  Some  sort  of  litter  should 
always  be  scattered  under  the  hover  and  over  the  floor 
surrounding  it.  The  material  used  when  the  chicks 
are  first  put  out  should  be  digestible,  such  as  mealed 
alfalfa,  bran,  or  the  shatterings  from  alfalfa  or  clover 
hay.  Not  infrequently  before  the  chicks  have  learned 
to  distinguish  between  the  different  kinds  of  feed,  they 
get  to  eating  the  litter.  In  the  case  of  sand,  gravel,  chaff 
or  chopped  straw,  which  are  all  highly  indigestible,  their 
crops  become  impacted  and  a  large  death  loss  results. 

With  brooder  chicks  the  main  effort  should  be  to 
keep  them  comfortable.  As  a  general  rule  it  will  be 
found  that  where  a  temperature  of  100°  F.  is  given  at 
first  it  can  be  reduced  4°  or  5°  a  week  until  the  chicks 
are  well  feathered  out.  If  the  weather  is  over-warm  it 
may  be  reduced  even  faster.  If  it  turns  cold,  it  is  fre- 
quently necessary  to  increase  the  heat  again.  It  is 
always  well  to  furnish  plenty  of  heat  for  the  chicks, 
they  will  move  out  from  under  the  hover  if  they  are 
too  warm.  If  on  the  other  hand,  they  are  too  cold, 
they  are  likely  to  bunch  and  pile  up  resulting  in  the 
smothering  of  some  chicks  and  more  or  less  injury  to 
all.  A  chick  that  has  been  thoroughly  chilled  probably 
never  regains  its  full  thrift  and  vitality. 

Twer^y 


PROGRESSIVE    POULTRY   RAISING 

Chapter  IV 

Rearing  Young  Chicks 

Feeding  Chicks — The  secret  of  the  successful 
feeding  of  little  chicks,  insofar  as  there  is  any  secret, 
lies  in  four  things.  The  first  is  in  not  feeding  too  soon. 
The  second  is  to  feed  sparingly,  giving  a  little  at  a  time 
and  often;  the  third  is  to  feed  only  grains  which  are 
absolutely  free  of  must  or  mold,  and  the  fourth  is  to 
furnish  those  ingredients  which  supply  their  growing 
needs. 

Chicks  should  not  be  removed  from  the  incubator 
until  they  show  by  their  actions  that  they  are  quite 
hungry.  This  is  never  sooner  than  thirty-six  hours 
after  hatching  and  is  frequently  forty-eight  or  even 
seventy-two.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  when  the 
chicks  are  fed  before  all  of  the  yolk  material  which  is 
taken  into  the  digestive  tract  just  before  hatching  is 
fully  absorbed  and  digested,  it  sours  and  causes  scours, 
usually  followed  by  a  loss  of  chicks. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  when  the  little  chicks 
are  put  in  brooders,  they  are  left  largely  to  their  own 
resources.  There  is  no  mother  hen  to  keep  them  alert 
and  interested  in  picking  up  their  food  a  bit  at  a  time. 
The  tendency,  particularly  with  the  beginner,  is  usually 
to  overfeed  rendering  the  chicks  dull,  listless  and  highly 
susceptible  to  the  many  ills  to  which  they  are  heir. 
For  the  first  two  weeks  after  they  come  from  the  incu- 
bator the  chicks  should  be  fed  at  least  five  times  a  day, 
and  never  more  at  one  time  than  they  will  clean  up 
fairly  readily. 

The  grains  used  must  be  sweet.  Whenever  a  new 
supply  is  gotten,  either  by  purchase,  or  from  a  bin,  it 
should  be  carefully  inspected  by  burying  the  nose  in  a 
double  handful  to  see  whether  there  is  any  musty  or 
moldy  taint.     One  may  almost  as  well  feed  poison  to 

Twenty-One 


PROGRESSIVE        POULTRY        RAISING 

chicks  as  to  feed  grains  that  have  heated  or  musted  in 
the  bin.  Much  of  the  so-called  white  diarrhea  found 
in  the  Central  and  Western  States  is  not  a  contagious 
disease  at  all,  but  a  condition  caused  by  one  of  two 
things:  feeding  too  soon  after  the  chicks  are  hatched 
or  feeding  grain  that  is  not  perfectly  sweet. 

In  furnishing  the  chicks  with  the  proper  ingredients 
for  growth,  it  has  been  found  that  sour  milk  when  used 
in  connection  with  the  grains  usually  available  in  most 
sections  of  the  country,  comes  as  near  being  what  the 
chick  needs  as  anything  that  can  be  found.  This  is 
emphasized  in  the  following  outline  taken  from  Bulletin 
No.  96  of  the  Storrs  Agricultural  Experiment  Station: 

Sour  Milk  the  First  Feed — ''On  removing  from 
the  incubator  take  each  chick  individually  and  dip 
its  beak  in  sour  milk  in  order  to  make  sure  that  milk 
is  the  first  food  taken  into  its  system.  Be  sure  that  the 
chick  swallows  two  or  three  times  before  passing  it  on 
to  the  box  or  basket  in  which  it  is  to  be  carried  to  the 
brooder.  Extensive  experiments  have  shown  that  milk 
is  a  quickly  and  easily  digested  food  and  that  it  has  a 
most  favorable  influence  in  promoting  growth  and  in 
reducing  mortality  from  all  causes.  It  has  been  the 
practice  at  this  station  not  to  give  the  chicks  any  water 
to  drink  until  they  are  eight  or  ten  weeks  old,  provided 
they  are  given  all  the  milk  they  will  consume.  This 
method  insures  the  consumption  of  milk  by  all  the 
chicks  whereas,  if  both  water  and  milk  are  available, 
some  of  the  chicks  are  likely  to  drink  only  water.  For 
best  results  sour  milk  should  be  fed  in  a  thickened  con- 
dition but  before  the  curd  has  separated  from  the  whey. 
The  chicks  seem  to  like  it  best  in  this  condition  and 
will  consume  more  than  if  it  is  not  yet  thickened  or  if 
separation    has    taken    place. 

"Practical  considerations  may  prevent  feeding  the 
milk  in  this  ideal  condition.     In  the  first  place  thick 

Twenty-Tivo 


PROGRESSIVE        POULTRY        RAISING 

milk  does  not  readily  feed  down  in  a  drinking  fountain 
and  fountains  are  often  preferred  to  open  drinking  pans. 
Furthermore,  it  may  not  always  be  possible  to  get  milk 
in  just  the  same  condition  every  day  so  that  uniform 
souring  can  be  allowed  to  take  place  before  feeding.  In 
avoiding  these  difficulties  it  is  better  to  feed  the  milk 
before  it  has  thickened  than  to  wait  until  it  has  sepa- 
rated. Chicks  apparently  do  not  relish  the  clear  whey 
which  always  remains  at  the  top,  but  if  one  follows  the 
natural  inclination  to  pour  it  off,  a  lot  of  valuable  food 
will  be  lost. 

"In  many  cases,  especially  where  milk  is  produced 
on  the  farm,  it  may  be  more  desirable  to  feed  sweet 
milk  than  to  wait  for  it  to  sour.  In  deciding  this,  as 
with  many  other  problems,  the  poultryman  must  be 
governed  by  his  own  particular  conditions.  In  all  our 
experiments  we  have  obtained  substantially  equal 
results  with  sweet  and  sour  milk.  The  only  reason  for 
advocating  sour  milk  is  that  the  chicks  seem  to  prefer 
it.  The  lactic  acid  in  sour  milk  is  not  at  all  a  necessary 
factor  in  milk  feeding. 

"Part  of  the  beneficial  effect  of  the  milk  seems  to 
come  from  the  fact  that  it  induces  the  chicks  to  con- 
sume larger  quantities  of  grain  and  mash  than  will 
chicks  of  the  same  age  when  not  given  milk.  For  this 
reason,  if  for  no  other,  a  supply  of  milk  should  be  kept 
constantly  available  from  the  time  the  chicks  are  placed 
in  the  brooder  and  for  just  as  long  as  it  can  be  obtained 
at  a  reasonable  price. 

Feeding  Practice — "The  first  day's  rations  should 
consist  of  fine  chick  feed  in  which  has  been  mixed  a 
large  percentage  of  fine  grit.  It  may  even  be  well  to 
give  clear  grit  for  the  first  feed.  If  coarse  sand  is  used 
on  the  floor  it  will  take  the  place  of  commercial  grit. 
The  chicks  will  learn  to  eat  grit  just  as  readily  as  they 
will  pick  up  grain.     Under  no  circumstances  should  the 

Twenty-Three 


PROGRESSIVE        POULTRY        RAISING 

early  feeding  of  grit  be  omitted  for  without  it  the  chick 
cannot  make  use  of  the  hard  food  which  it  is  to  be 
given.  After  two  or  three  days  the  proportion  of  grit 
may  be  reduced  and  after  the  first  week  it  may  be 
hopper  fed  if  desired,  in  order  to  prevent  waste. 

"As  soon  as  the  chicks  learn  to  eat  the  grain  it 
should  be  scattered  in  a  litter  where  they  will  have  to 
work  for  all  they  get.  Feed  them  sparingly  four  or 
five  times  daily  and  make  them  exercise.  It  is  very 
easy  to  overfeed  young  chicks.  They  should  be  kept 
always  hungry  for  more.  Let  the  digestive  organs 
gradually  work  up  to  their  maximum  capacity  during 
the  first  two  or  three  weeks,  after  which  time  the  chicks 
may  safely  be  fed  all  they  will  consume. 

"Beginning  with  the  third  day  wheat  bran  should 
be  constantly  available.  Bran  is  a  mild  laxative  and 
in  this  connection  probably  has  some  value.  More 
important,  however,  is  the  fact  that  it  is  bulky.  The 
consumption  of  bran  insures  a  considerable  distension 
of  the  digestive  tract,  putting  it  in  shape  for  the  work 
that  it  will  soon  be  compelled  to  do.  Bran  satisfies 
the  chick's  craving  for  something  to  eat  without  calling 
upon  the  digestive  system  to  assimilate  a  lot  of  nutrients 
which  it  is  not  yet  prepared  to  handle.  Another  im- 
portant point  to  remember  is  that  bran  is  rich  in 
mineral  matter  except  lime.  In  particular  it  contains 
a  large  amount  of  phosphorus  and  this  is  very  impor- 
tant for  the  formation  of  bone.  The  building  of  bone 
also  requires  lime  in  some  form.  This  may  be  fur- 
nished by  using  grit  that  contains  a  considerable 
amount  of  lime  or  by  feeding  fine  ground  oyster  shells 
in  hoppers  where  the  chicks  can  get  them  as  desired. 

"During  the  second  week  feed  the  grain  three  or 
four  times  daily  and  substitute  chick  mash  for  the 
wheat  bran.  When  the  chicks  are  about  six  weeks  old, 
the  chick  feed  may  gradually  be  replaced  by  inter- 

Twenty-Four 


Fig.  1.    Oil  lamp  heated  small  sizsd  hover. 


I 

w^uM__f^^^^^             '•^~~r-              .^^B^H 

f  ^ 

''I 

'^^m                      V.  _,^^|_ 

^1 

Bfx^^  -  J  IbIBBiH^^^^^^^^H 

Fig.  2.    A  coal  stove  brooder,  hover  raised. 

This  type  seems  to  be  displacing  the  smaller  oil  heated 

hover.      Courtesy  Kans.  State  Agr.  Col. ) 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY   RAISING 

mediate  or  scratch  feed  and  the  number  of  feedings 
reduced  to  three  daily.  Also  the  chick  mash  may  be 
replaced  by  the  regular  laying  mash. 

"Make  all  changes  of  feed  gradually.  If  changed 
suddenly  from  all  chick  feed  to  all  scratch  feed,  the 
chicks  will  probably  eat  very  little  of  the  new  feed  and 
in  consequence  will  receive  an  undesirable  set-back  in 
growth." 

The  feeding  formulas  which  have  been  used  by  the 
Storrs  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  for  several 
years  are  as  follows: 

Chick  Feed 

Cracked  Wheat 1 5  lbs. 

Fine  Cracked  Com 15  lbs. 

Pinhead  Oats 10  lbs. 

Broken  Rice 3  lbs. 

Fine  Charcoal 2  lbs. 

Dry  Mash 

Wheat  Bran 20  lbs. 

Corn  Meal 10  lbs. 

Sifted  Ground  Oats 10  lbs. 

Low  Grade  Flour 10  lbs. 

Beef  or  Fish  Scrap 10  lbs. 

At  six  weeks  of  age  the  chick  feed  was  gradually  re- 
placed by  scratch  feed  and  the  chick  mash  by  the 
regular  laying  mash.  The  formula  for  each  of  these 
is  given ; 

Scratch    Feed 

Cracked  Com 200  lbs. 

Wheat 200  lbs. 

Laying  Mash 

Com  Meal 100  lbs. 

Wheat  Bran 100  lbs. 

Ground  Oats 100  lbs. 

Flour  Middlings 100  lbs. 

Beef  or  Fish  Scrap 100  lbs. 

Green  Feed — For  the  best  growth  and  develop- 
ment of  chicks  another  factor  is  also  necessary,  namely, 

Twenty-Five 


PROGRESSIVE        POULTRY        RAISING 

green  feed  in  some  form.  This  may  consist  of  mangels, 
table  beets,  sprouted  oats,  lettuce,  lawn  clippings,  or 
other  things  which  are  available  at  different  seasons. 
The  supplying  of  green  feed  should  begin  early — 
chicks  will  eat  it  as  soon  as  the  third  or  fourth  day. 
If  mangels  are  used  they  should  be  cut  fine  and  scattered 
a  little  at  a  time  where  all  the  chicks  may  have  a  chance 
to  get  a  taste.  As  soon  as  they  learn  to  eat  them  well 
the  mangels  may  be  sliced  and  hung  on  finish  nails  on 
the  wall.  The  chicks  cannot  get  too  much  green  feed 
and  they  should  have  access  to  a  bountiful  supply  at 
all  times. 

Separate  the  Sexes — As  soon  as  the  sexes  can  be 
distinguished  they  should  be  separated.  Unless  the 
cockerels  are  to  be  sold  as  breeders,  they  should  be 
penned  up  and  heavily  fed  until  they  are  large  enough 
to  be  disposed  of  as  broilers  weighing  1  Yi  to  2  J^  pounds. 
They  will  never  come  nearer  to  returning  a  profit  than 
at  the  broiler  age.  In  some  sections  where  good  prices 
for  capons  prevail  it  may  pay  to  caponize  the  cockerels 
and  grow  them  out  for  the  holiday  market.  In  most 
cases,  however,  the  room  can  be  used  to  better  advan- 
tage in  developing  pullets. 

Location  of  Poultry  House — When  the  chicks 
are  well  feathered  out  and  all  danger  of  their  needing 
further  heat  is  past,  they  should  be  given  quarters 
supplied  with  perches  so  located  that  they  can  have 
abundant  range.  Whether  it  is  to  be  used  for  old  or 
young  stock,  the  poultry  house  should  be  located  where 
the  drainage  is  good  and  there  is  an  abundance  of 
shade  near  by.  Although  the  chicken  originally  came 
from  a  very  hot  country,  it  was  a  jungle-dwelling  fowl 
unable  to  survive  the  burning  sun  without  the  protec- 
tion of  trees  and  shrubs.  Its  need  of  this  kind  of  pro- 
tection has  not  changed  and  the  poultry  house  should 
be  very  close  to  the  orchard  or  woodlot.     If  the  chicken 

Tvoenty-Siz 


PROGRESSIVE    POULTRY   RAISING 

house  is  to  be  dry,  as  it  must  be  to  give  good  results, 
it  must  be  located  where  the  drainage  is  good  either 
naturally  or  because  of  tiling. 

Essentials  of  Good  Hen  House — There  are  four 
essentials  of  a  good  chicken  house.  When  these  are 
taken  care  of,  it  makes  little  difference  what  style  or 
type  the  house  is.  These  four  essentials  are  dryness, 
ventilation  without  drafts,  sunlight  and  plenty  of  room. 

The  domestic  fowl  is  very  much  more  dependent 
upon  its  breathing  apparatus  to  regulate  the  body  tem- 
perature through  evaporation  than  other  farm  animals. 
It  also  depends  upon  its  lungs  and  air  sacs,  to  a  large 
extent,  to  get  rid  of  the  excess  moisture  of  the  body. 
Whenever  a  chicken  is  forced  to  breath  damp  air,  it  is 
at  a  physical  disadvantage  and  it  is  uncomfortable. 
It  is  only  the  comfortable  chick  that  will  thrive  and  the 
comfortable  hen  that  will  lay  many  eggs. 

One  of  the  means  of  keeping  a  hen  house  dry  is  to 
furnish  plenty  of  ventilation.  Chickens,  however,  are 
sensitive  to  drafts  and  take  cold  easily,  hence  this  ven- 
tilation should  be  furnished  in  such  a  way  that  the 
birds  are  never  in  a  direct  draft.  Pound  for  pound, 
fowls  use  a  very  great  deal  more  oxygen  from  the  air 
than  do  horses,  cattle,  sheep  and  swine.  An  insufficient 
supply  of  fresh  air  is  more  quickly  injurious  to  them 
than  to  any  other  class  of  farm  animals. 

Plenty  of  sun  shining  into  the  house  is  also  an  aid  in 
keeping  it  dry.  Sunlight  also  makes  the  house  more 
cheerful  and  attractive  and  the  hens  more  comfortable. 
It  is  further  the  best  natural  disinfectant  that  we  have 
and  is  a  great  preventive  of  disease.  A  common  fault 
of  farm  hen  houses  is  that  they  are  too  dark. 

The  chicken  house  may  be  dry,  well  ventilated 
without  drafts  and  have  window  space  sufficient  to 
admit  plenty  of  sunlight  and  still  give  bad  results  if 
too  many  individuals  are  crowded  into  a  given  house. 

Twenty-Seven 


PROGRESSIVE        POULTRY        RAISING 

For  the  older  birds  the  best  results  will  usually  be 
secured  if  from  5}^  to  4  square  feet  of  floor  space  per  bird 
is  allowed. 

As  a  usual  thing,  the  net  returns  from  a  flock  of  100 
laying  hens  kept  in  a  house  20x20  will  be  greater  than 
from  200  hens  kept  in  the  same  house  taken  year  in 
and  year  out.  In  years  when  the  windows  are  open 
and  the  birds  can  be  out  of  doors  most  of  the  time, 
the  results  from  the  crowded  house  might  not  be  so 
bad,  but  in  ordinary  years,  the  winter  egg  production, 
which  is  the  most  profitable  production,  would  be  very 
seriously  interfered  with. 

Plans  of  a  very  successful  laying  house,  taken  from 
the  New  Jersey  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 
Bulletin  325,  are  shown  in  Figures  1  and  2,  which  give 
the  arrangement  of  perches,  nests,  watering  devices 
and  feed  hoppers.  In  all  those  sections  where  it  is 
not  unusually  dry,  it  would  be  advisable  to  put  in  a 
layer  of  coarse  crushed  rock  below  the  cement  floor  in 


Two  Unit  Scctiom 


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New  JCBStY  Multiple  Unit  Lavh^  House. 

Fig.  1 


Twenty-Eight 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY   RAISING 

order  to  keep  out  the  moisture  that  is  constantly  work- 
ing up  through  the  ground  and,  unless  prevented, 
through  the  floor  into  the  hen  house.  Proper  con- 
struction of  the  floor  of  the  hen  house  is  one  of  the  most 
important  items. 

Attention  is  also  called  to  the  ventilator  at  the  rear 
of  the  house  behind  the  dropping  boards  which  allows 
for  a  summer  ventilation.  The  space  immediately 
behind  and  above  the  dropping  boards  is  fixed  so  that 
the  draft  cannot  strike  the  birds  when  at  roost  but  will 
pass  above  or  below  them. 


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New  Jersey  Multiple  Unit  Laying  House 
Floor  Plan  -  Two  Unit  Section 
Scale    f-l 

Fig.  2. — Floor  plan  of  an  excellent  poultry  house. 
(Courtesy  N.J.  Agr.  Expt.  Sta.) 

Care  of  the  House — Good  results  from  the  flock 
depend  to  a  marked  degree  upon  the  care  of  the  build- 
ing that  houses  them.  The  house  that  is  not  cleaned 
and  thoroughly  sprayed  at  intervals  is  almost  sure  to 
harbor  mites  and  lice  and  to  be  filthy  as  well.  Filth 
provides  a  great  place,  not  only  for  the  breeding  of 
mites,  but  for  the  development  of  disease  germs. 

Twenty-Nint 


PROGRESSIVE         POULTRY         RAISING 

The  chicken  house  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  out 
and  the  floor,  walls,  ceiling  and  fixtures  thoroughly 
drenched  with  some  powerful  disinfectant  at  least  twice 
a  year,  preferably  the  early  spring  and  in  the  fall.  A 
three  percent  solution  of  a  coal  tar  stock  dip  will  serve. 
The  litter  kept  in  the  house  should  be  removed  and 
replaced  with  fresh  whenever  it  becomes  so  broken  up 
that  grain  thrown  out  to  the  birds  does  not  disappear 
so  that  the  birds  have  to  scratch  it  out  to  find  it. 

In  commercial  poultry  plants  where  fowls  are  kept 
in  quite  large  numbers,  the  artificial  lighting  of  the 
houses,  morning  and  evening,  proves  profitable  during 
the  winter.  Giving  hens  12  hours  of  light  increases  egg 
production  at  the  season  when  prices  are  high.  It 
apparently  does  not  increase  the  yearly  production. 
For  ordinary  farm  flocks,  however,  it  would  hardly  pay. 

Yards — Fowls  should  be  fenced  out  of  places  where 
they  are  not  wanted  rather  than  into  yards.  Free 
range  is  the  ideal  chicken  yard,  for  it  usually  furnishes 
cheap  feed  and  good  health.  Hence,  the  practice  of 
fencing  chickens  out  of  the  door  yard  and  garden  and 
away  from  the  granary  and  giving  them  the  run  of 
the  farm  is  growing.  Where  it  is  necessary  to  confine 
the  birds,  the  larger  the  yards  can  be  made  the  better. 
Whenever  they  are  so  small  that  the  chickens  keep 
them  bare  of  greenness,  the  flock  is  in  danger  of  a  bad 
epidemic  of  disease.  Such  yards  should  be  turned 
over  at  least  once  a  year  (twice  a  year  is  better),  and 
seeded  down  to  some  quick  growing  crop.  Only  by 
such  means  can  the  soil  be  kept  free  from  disease. 

It  is  highly  important  that  the  pullets  be  put  into 
the  laying  house  early.  They  should  be  in  winter 
quarters  long  before  they  begin  to  lay.  When  they 
are  neglected  and  are  not  moved  into  the  permanent 
laying  house  until  after  they  begin  to  lay,  they  are 
very  likely  to  be  thrown  into  a  molt  which  will  in  turn 
seriously  interfere  with  their  winter  egg  production. 

Thirty 


PROGRESSIVE        POULTRY        RAISING 

Chapter  V 

Poultry  Feeding 

Feeding  Laying  Hens — Contrary  to  the  general 
belief,  there  is  no  one  ration  which  is  better  than  all 
the  rest  and  which  is  a  guarantee  of  egg  production. 
As  much  depends  upon  how  a  ration  is  fed  as  upon 
what  the  ration  contains.  The  following  ration  taken 
from  the  Purdue  University  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station  Bulletin  No.  218  has  been  widely  used  and  has 
given  most  excellent  results.  It  has  the  very  great 
advantage  of  being  quite  simple. 

Grain 

Corn 10  lbs. 

Wheat 10  lbs. 

Oats 5  lbs. 

Mash 

Bran 5  lbs. 

Shorts 5  lbs. 

Meat  Scraps 3.5  lbs. 

Where  there  is  plenty  of  skim  milk  available,  it  may 
be  used  to  replace  the  meat  scrap,  if  given  as  a  drink. 
The  following  routine  in  feeding  laying  hens  taken  from 
Lippincott's  Poultry  Production  has  proved  successful 
in  a  large  number  of  cases. 

"In  the  morning  give  a  light  feed  of  grain,  soon  after 
the  birds  leave  the  perch.  This  should  be  scattered  in 
a  deep  litter  of  straw  to  every  part  of  the  pen  so  that 
the  birds  will  be  compelled  to  scratch  vigorously  for 
some  hours  in  order  to  search  it  all  out.  Fresh  water 
should  be  supplied  in  the  morning. 

"At  noon  as  much  succulence  as  the  birds  will  clean 
up  in  twenty  minutes  to  half  an  hour  should  be  supplied. 
Fresh  water  should  be  given  and  the  dry  mash  hopper 
opened. 

Thirty-One 


PROGRESSIVE        POULTRY        RAISING 

"Two  to  three  hours  before  the  birds  go  to  roost  they 
should  be  given  a  full  feed  of  grain  thrown  in  the  litter. 
It  is  essential  to  the  best  results  that  the  birds  go  to 
roost  with  full  crops,  and  this  feeding  should  not  be 
stinted.  An  examination  of  the  crops  of  the  birds 
should  now  and  then  be  made  after  they  are  on  the 
perch  to  ascertain  whether  they  are  well  filled. 

"It  is  better  to  overdo  the  matter  of  evening  feeding 
a  little  than  to  slight  it.  If  a  little  grain  is  left  in  the 
litter,  it  will  be  eagerly  scratched  out  in  the  morning. 
Great  care  should  be  taken,  however,  so  to  feed  that 
the  straw  is  scratched  absolutely  free  of  grain  at  least 
once  a  day.  In  following  this  particular  routine  this 
should  be  the  condition  at  noon.  The  really  skilled 
feeder  is  the  one  who  so  handles  the  ration  that  he  con- 
stantly piques  the  appetite  of  his  fowls,  making  them 
consume  large  amounts  of  feed  with  relish,  yet  never 
giving  quite  all  they  would  like  to  consume.  As  noted 
in  other  connections,  of  the  two  evils,  'overfeeding'  or 
'underfeeding'  to  a  slight  degree,  the  latter  is  prefer- 
able. It  limits  production  slightly,  by  not  furnishing 
quite  all  the  raw  material  that  could  be  made  over  into 
a  finished  product,  but  it  keeps  the  appetite  keen  and 
the  body  in  good  working  order.  Overfeeding,  on  the 
other  hand,  cloys  the  appetite  and  clogs  the  system, 
thereby  limiting  production  even  more  than  in  the 
first  case. 

"Unless  the  weather  is  quite  cool,  fresh  water  should 
be  supplied  at  the  time  of  the  evening  feeding.  In  the 
event  of  freezing  weather,  the  water  pan  should  be 
emptied." 

In  the  Purdue  University  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station  ration  given  above  it  is  assumed  that  the  hens 
will  consume  25  pounds  of  the  grain  while  eating  133^ 
pounds  of  the  dry  mash  where  meat  scrap  is  used. 
Where  meat  scrap  is  not  used,  they  will  consume  25 

Thirty-Two 


PROGRESSIVE        POULTRY        RAISING 

pounds  of  grain  to  10  pounds  of  dry  mash  and  drink  50 
to  60  pounds  of  skim  milk. 

Another  ration  originating  at  the  Cornell  Station 
and  fed  with  excellent  success  is  as  follows : 

Grain 

Wheat 3  parts 

Corn  or  Kafir 2  parts 

Oats 1  part 

Dry  Mash 

Corn  Meal 60  lbs. 

Wheat  Middlings  or  Shorts 60  lbs. 

Meat  Scrap 50  lbs. 

Wheat  Bran 30  lbs. 

Linseed  Oil  Meal 10  lbs. 

Alfalfa  Meal 10  lbs. 

Salt 1  lbs. 

This  ration  may  also  be  fed  according  to  the  routine 
outlined  above. 

Fattening  for  Slaughter — While  the  final  finish- 
ing for  slaughter  is  done  in  the  feed  lot  in  the  case 
of  most  of  the  farm  animals,  this  does  not  hold  true  for 
poultry.  Instead  it  is  done  at  the  packing  house  by 
means  of  milk  feeding  in  crates,  because  birds  that  are 
properly  fattened  on  the  farm  are  so  tender  that  they 
cannot  stand  the  handling  necessary  for  shipment 
without  bruising.  These  bruises  develop  into  highly 
colored  green  and  blue  patches  that  spoil  the  appearance 
of  the  carcass  and  interfere  with  its  sale.  The  fatten- 
ing process  also  has  a  peculiar  effect  on  the  bones, 
rendering  them  so  chalky  and  brittle  that  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  ship  finished  stock  without  breaking  legs 
and  wings. 

While  the  final  finishing  must  be  done  at  the  packing 
house,  it  pays  to  send  the  birds  to  market  in  good 
f^esh.  In  the  case  of  mature  birds,  it  is  a  good  plan 
to  pen  them  up  and  feed  all  the  corn  they  will  eat 
for  a  period  of  two  weeks  prior  to  sale  or  shipment. 

Thirty-Three 


PROGRESSIVE        POULTRY        RAISING 

Chapter  VI 

Poultry  Diseases 

The  Disease  Problem — In  dealing  with  poultry 
diseases,  preventive  rather  than  curative  measures 
should  be  depended  upon.  The  flock  that  is  well  bred 
from  the  standpoint  of  vigor,  is  reasonably  well  fed  and 
given  a  comfortable  house  and  run  on  land  that  is 
sodded  or  grows  a  crop  each  year,  is  not  likely  to  give 
much  difficulty  from  diseases.  As  a  usual  thing  it  will 
be  found  easiest  and  the  least  expensive  to  isolate  indi- 
vidual ailing  birds  and  except  in  the  case  of  slight  ail- 
ments which  quickly  recover,  kill  and  burn  them. 
Where  one  is  so  unfortunate  as  to  have  an  epidemic 
make  its  appearance,  the  veterinarian  should  be  called 
or  fowls  that  are  just  coming  down  with  the  disease 
should  be  shipped  to  the  State  Experiment  Station 
for  examination  and  diagnosis. 

Lice  and  Mites — In  the  control  of  lice  sodium 
fluorid  is  nearly  100  per  cent  efficient.  It  is  easily  the 
best  louse  killer  to  be  obtained.  It  can  usually  be 
secured  from  the  local  drug  store  and  comes  in  the  form 
of  a  white  powder.  It  may  be  applied  in  two  forms, 
as  a  dust  or  as  a  dip.  Where  applied  as  a  dust,  small 
pinches  of  it  should  be  worked  into  the  feathers  on  the 
head,  neck,  back,  breast,  under  the  wings  and  below 
the  vent.  During  the  warm  weather  it  is  very  much 
quicker  and  much  more  effective  to  dip  the  fowls.  The 
solution  is  colorless  and  does  not  stain  the  feathers. 
Where  the  dipping  is  done  on  a  warm,  quiet,  sunny  day 
the  birds  dry  out  quickly  and  no  ill  effects  follow. 

The  following  is  quoted  from  Farmers'  Bulletin  801 
of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture: 

"In  using  the  dipping  method  all  that  is  necessary 
is  a  supply  of  tepid  water  and  a  tub.      If  two  persons 

Thirty-Four 


PROGRESSIVE        POULTRY        RAISING 

are  to  dip  at  the  same  time  it  is  advisable  to  use  a 
large  tub.  The  water  should  be  measured  into  the 
tub  and  three-fourths  to  one  ounce  of  commercial  or 
two-thirds  of  an  ounce  of  chemically  pure  sodium 
fiuorid  added  to  each  gallon  of  water.  It  is  readily 
dissolved  by  stirring.  The  tub  should  be  filled  to 
within  6  or  8  inches  of  the  top,  and  as  the  amount  of 
solution  is  lowered  through  dipping  numbers  of  fowls, 
water  with  the  proper  proportion  of  sodium  fluorid 
dissolved  should  be  added  from  time  to  time. 

**In  dipping  the  fowls  it  is  best  to  hold  the  wings 
over  the  back  with  the  left  hand  and  quickly  submerge 
the  fowl  in  the  solution,  leaving  the  head  out  while  the 
feathers  are  thoroughly  ruffled  with  the  other  hand  so 
as  to  allow  the  solution  to  penetrate  to  the  skin  on 
different  parts  of  the  bird.  The  head  is  then  ducked 
once  or  twice,  the  bird  is  lifted  out  of  the  bath  and 
allowed  to  drain  a  few  seconds  and  is  then  released. 

"It  is  not  necessary  to  keep  the  fowl  under  the 
water  longer  than  20  to  30  seconds  and  the  head  only 
an  instant." 

Mites  can  be  controlled  by  spraying  thoroughly  the 
interior  of  the  hen  house  and  all  the  fixtures  with  a  mix- 
ture of  kerosene  and  crude  oil  in  the  proportion  of  1  to  3. 
As  a  usual  thing,  one  thorough  application  will  com- 
pletely eradicate  the  mites  of  the  infested  house  but 
to  make  sure,  it  is  advisable  to  make  a  second  spraying 
a  month  after  the  first. 


Thirty-Five 


PROGRESSI\^E    POULTRY    RAISING 

Chapter  VII 

Turkeys 

Standards — Of  the  six  varieties  of  turkeys  recog- 
nized in  America  the  Bronze  is  by  far  the  most  widely 
bred.  It  is  also  the  largest  and  is  usually  the  most 
desirable  for  market  purposes  in  spite  of  its  dark  feath- 
ers. The  standard  weight  of  the  young  tom  is  25 
pounds,  yearling,  33  pounds  and  adult  36  pounds. 
The  standard  weight  of  the  young  female  is  16  pounds 
and  the  mature  female  20  pounds.  Next  in  popularity 
comes  the  variety  known  as  the  White  Holland,  which 
is  a  somewhat  smaller  bird.  The  standard  weights  for 
the  males  of  different  ages  is  20,  24  and  28  pounds  and 
for  the  females  14  and  18  pounds. 

Management — It  is  unnecessary  to  provide  a 
house  for  turkeys  though  it  is  the  part  of  wisdom  to 
have  a  shed  handy  into  which  they  may  be  driven  on 
extremely  stormy  nights.  As  a  usual  thing  they  will 
do  better  roosting  out  in  the  open  even  in  quite  severe 
weather.  Where  only  a  small  flock  is  kept  1  5  females 
may  be  mated  with  one  male  if  he  is  unquestionably 
vigorous.  If  a  flock  of  about  25  or  30  is  kept,  two 
males  will  be  needed  but  they  should  not  be  allowed 
to  run  with  the  flock  at  one  time.  One  should  be 
allowed  to  run  with  the  flock  one  day  and  the  other  the 
next.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  where  both  are  al- 
lowed to  mingle  with  the  flock  at  the  same  time,  they 
will  fight  until  one  of  them  becomes  boss,  after  which 
he  will  do  most  of  the  mating  and  the  flock  will  be 
very  little  better  off  so  far  as  the  fertility  is  concerned 
than  if  it  had  a  single  male. 

When  one  experiences  difficulty  with  having  the 
laying  hens  hide  out  their  nests  during  the  hatching 
season,  this  can  usually  be  overcome  by  shutting  the 

Thirty-Six 


PROGRESSIVE        POULTRY        RAISING 

birds  in  a  pasture  or  better  still,  the  orchard,  until  they 
are  through  laying,  when  they  may  be  let  out  for  exer- 
cise. They  may  be  driven  in  at  night-fall  if  there  are 
suitable  roosting  quarters,  or  allowed  to  roost  out  all 
night  and  driven  in  in  the  morning.  The  latter  is  not 
difficult  to  do  where  one  has  been  following  the  prac- 
tice of  giving  a  morning  feed. 

During  the  winter  the  birds  should  be  fed  twice  a 
day  on  equal  part  of  oats,  wheat  and  corn.  Something 
in  the  line  of  green  feed  should  be  given  and  also  feed  of 
animal  origin  such  as  meat  scrap,  high  grade  tankage  or 
sour  milk. 

Raising  Poults — As  a  usual  thing  it  is  the  best 
plan  to  raise  the  poults  with  their  natural  mothers  or 
with  chicken  hens.  Turkey  hens  are  the  most  satis- 
factory mothers  for  poults  but  where  it  is  desirable  to 
break  up  the  broody  turkey  hens  and  get  them  to 
laying  again,  chicken  hens  may  be  used.  Turkey  hens 
will  ordinarily  cover  fifteen  to  seventeen  eggs  while 
chicken  hens  of  the  middle  weight  breeds  will  take 
care  of  seven  to  nine.  Whether  turkey  or  chicken 
hens  are  used  the  nests  should  be  made  on  the  ground 
and  lined  with  straw.  The  setting  hen  should  always 
be  carefully  dusted  with  sodium  fiuorid  so  that  she  will 
certainly  be  louse  free  at  the  time  of  bringing  off  the 
hatch. 

Handling  Young  Poults — For  brooding  young 
poults  plenty  of  exercise  and  dryness  are  the  two  great 
essentials.  The  coop  used  for  the  mother  hen  should 
be  weather  tight,  though  allowing  for  ventilation.  It 
should  also  be  movable  so  that  it  can  be  shifted  about 
from  place  to  place.  Where  the  poults  are  on  range 
they  will  usually  need  little,  if  any,  feeding.  When 
the  conditions  are  such  that  they  cannot  be  out  on  the 
range  some  attention  must  be  given  to  their  feeding. 
The  following  is  a  method  outlined  in  Farmers'  Bul- 

ThirtySeven 


PROGRESSIVE        POULTRY        RAISING 

letin  No.  791  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture,  "For  the  first  two  days  after  hatching, 
poults  require  no  feed,  the  yolk  of  the  egg  which  they 
absorb  before  breaking  out  of  the  shell  being  sufficient 
to  maintain  them  for  that  length  of  time.  Access 
to  clean  drinking  water  and  a  little  coarse  sand  and 
green  feed  to  pick  at,  is  all  that  is  needed  until  the 
third  day.  Beginning  with  the  third  day,  the  poults 
should  be  fed  according  to  the  quantity  of  natural 
feed  they  are  able  to  pick  up  outside  the  coop.  They 
should  always  be  hungry.  To  feed  all  they  will  clean 
up  several  times  a  day  removes  the  cause  of  searching 
for  food,  so  little  exercise  is  taken  and  indigestion  is 
sure  to  result.  When  natural  feed  is  scarce,  or  when 
the  poults  have  to  be  kept  from  ranging  outside,  they 
should  be  fed  lightly  about  five  times  a  day.  If  al- 
lowed to  run  outside  the  coop  where  they  can  find 
insects,  seeds,  and  green  feed,  they  need  not  be  fed 
oftener  than  two  or  three  times  a  day. 

Successful  turkey  raisers  use  many  different  kinds 
of  feed,  some  of  the  most  common  being  as  follows: 

1.  Hard-boiled  egg  chopped  fine  and  corn-bread 
crumbs  for  the  first  week,  and  then  whole  wheat  and 
hulled  oats. 

2.  Stale  bread,  soaked  in  milk  and  squeezed  dry, 
for  the  first  few  days  and  then  common  chick  feed. 

3.  Clabbered  milk  seasoned  with  salt  and  pepper, 
corn-bread  crumbs. 

4.  Equal  parts  "pinhead"  oats,  whole  wheat,  and 
cracked  corn. 

5.  Cracked  wheat. 

6.  Corn  meal  and  wheat  bran  mixed  in  the  propor- 
tion of  three  to  one  and  baked  into  bread. 

7.  Bran  or  middlings  one-half,  cracked  Egyptian 
corn  one-quarter,  wheat  and  hulled  oats  one-quarter. 

In  addition  to  the  above,  skim  milk  and  buttermilk 
are  quite  often  fed,  with  excellent  results.   A  good  plan 

Thirty-Eight 


PROGRESSIVE        POULTRY        RAISING 

is  to  keep  the  milk  in  front  of  tiie  poults  during  the 
morning  and  water  during  the  afternoon.  If  grit  and 
green  feed  cannot  be  picked  up  outside  the  coop,  they 
must  be  provided  in  some  other  way.  Chopped  onion 
tops,  lettuce  leaves,  dandelion  leaves  and  alfalfa  make 
excellent  green  feed.  Grit  can  be  furnished  in  the 
form  of  coarse  sand. 

Feeding  for  Market — In  getting  the  turkeys 
ready  for  market  it  is  a  good  thing  to  begin  feeding  a 
little  night  and  morning  about  the  middle  of  Septem- 
ber. The  feed  should  be  very  light  at  first  and  the 
amount  gradually  increased  until  about  ten  days  before 
marketing  when  they  should  be  given  all  they  will 
consume  three  times  a  day.  In  the  beginning  equal 
parts  of  wheat,  oats  and  corn  may  be  given  but  the 
proportion  of  corn  should  be  gradually  increased  until 
the  last  of  October  when  they  should  be  fed  on  corn 
alone.  As  a  usual  thing  results  are  not  satisfactory 
where  the  birds  are  confined  during  the  fattening 
period. 


Thirty-Nine 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY   RAISING 

Chapter  VIII 

Ducks 

Management — Ducks  like  turkeys  are  looked 
upon  as  meat  producing  birds.  While  the  Runner  duck 
is  quite  well  known  for  its  laying  propensities,  it  is  the 
only  one  of  the  several  varieties  that  can  be  looked 
upon  as  an  egg  producer.  Among  the  meat  breeds  the 
Pekin  stands  pre-eminent.  Where  these  birds  are 
given  proper  attention  they  may  be  marketed  at  ten 
to  twelve  weeks  weighing  five  to  six  pounds.  They 
can  be  raised  with  success  on  general  farms  but  the 
duck  business  has  tended  very  rapidly  to  be  concen- 
trated on  intensive  duck  farms  of  large  size.  A  house 
similar  to  the  one  required  for  chickens  is  desired. 
The  essential  of  the  duck  house  is  that  it  shall  be  dry 
and  have  fresh  air  with  freedom  from  drafts.  The 
floor  of  the  house  should  be  kept  well  bedded  with  straw 
and  cleaned  out  as  soon  as  the  straw  becomes  matted 
and  damp.  Dry  feet  while  in  the  house  at  night  seems 
to  be  a  necessity  for  egg  production.  Ducks  make 
their  nests  on  the  floor  of  the  house  by  burrowing  the 
straw.  The  number  of  ducks  per  house  should  be  one 
for  every  6  feet  of  floor  space  for  breeders,  though 
fattening  and  young  ducks  may  be  kept  closer.  A 
mesh  fence  18  inches  high  will  hold  most  ducks  and  a 
2-foot  one  all  of  those  commonly  raised  as  most  of 
them  cannot  fly. 

Breeding — At  the  beginning  of  the  breeding  season 
one  drake  should  be  allowed  for  five  or  six  ducks.  The 
number  of  males  should  be  reduced  to  one  for  every 
seven  about  March  1st  and  then  one  for  every  nine 
or  ten  about  April  1st.  The  number  of  drakes  should 
always  be  decreased  when  they  begin  to  worry  the 
ducks. 

Forty 


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PROGRESSIVE        POULTRY        RAISING 

The  desire  to  incubate  their  own  eggs  has  been  bred 
out  of  many  strains  of  ducks,  particularly  the  Pekin. 
For  this  reason  the  egg  must  be  hatched  in  incubators 
or  under  hens.  Duck  eggs  should  be  gathered  daily, 
kept  in  a  cool  place  and  turned  daily.  They  should  be 
set  as  soon  as  possible  after  laying  as  they  do  not  keep 
as  well  as  hens'  eggs.  In  incubating  duck  eggs  artifi- 
cially, they  are  handled  about  the  same  as  hens'  eggs 
except  that  the  temperature  should  be  held  at  102° 
for  the  first  three  weeks  and  more  moisture  supplied  in 
the  machine.  They  may  be  tested  for  fertility  on  the 
fourth  or  fifth  day.  Ducks  take  very  kindly  to  artifi- 
cial brooding  and  are  in  fact  usually  easier  to  handle 
than  chicks.  The  incubation  period  is  twenty-eight 
to  thirty  days  for  all  varieties  except  the  Muscovy,  in 
which  case  it  is  thirty-five  days. 

Raising  Young  Ducks — Where  they  are  to  be 
sold  as  green  ducks  at  ten  to  twelve  weeks,  the  young 
ducks  are  usually  not  allowed  to  range  but  are  fed 
heavily  from  the  first.  The  brooder  temperature 
should  be  about  95°  to  start  with  but  is  reduced  more 
rapidly  than  for  chicks,  usually  being  brought  down 
10°  the  first  week  and  reduced  even  more  rapidly  there- 
after. Ducklings  should  not  be  fed  for  at  least  thirty- 
six  hours  after  hatching.  The  ration  for  the  first  week 
may  consist  of  equal  parts  of  bran,  corn  meal  and 
middlings  with  5  percent  of  sand  in  it  to  serve  as  grit. 
This  should  be  given  to  them  five  times  daily,  care 
being  taken  that  no  more  is  fed  than  will  be  completely 
cleaned  up.  After  the  third  day  5  percent  of  sifted 
meat  scrap  should  be  added  and  green  feed  in  the  form 
of  chopped  lettuce,  alfalfa  or  clover  fed  freely.  After 
the  first  week  the  number  of  feedings  may  be  reduced 
to  four  and  the  ration,  two  parts  wheat  bran,  one  part 
wheat  middlings,  one  part  corn  meal  and  one-half  part 
meat  scrap  with  5  percent  sharp  sand,  may  be  given. 

Forty-One 


PROGRESSIVE    POULTRY   RAISING 

In  addition  all  the  green  food  they  will  consume  should 
be  furnished.  At  about  eight  weeks  of  age  the  young 
ducks  should  be  confined  in  a  cool,  shady  place  and 
fed  for  three  weeks  on  a  fattening  ration  which  may 
consist  of  equal  parts  of  wheat,  bran,  middlings,  corn 
meal,  to  which  is  added  10  percent  of  meat  scrap  and  5 
percent  of  sharp  sand  and  all  of  the  green  feed  they  will 
consume.  Birds  saved  for  breeding  should  not  be 
pushed  for  growth  but  they  should  be  kept  in  a  shady, 
grassy  pasture  and  light  feeding  of  two  parts  wheat 
bran,  one  part  corn  meal  and  one  part  ground  oats  may 
be  given  twice  a  day.  With  all  ducks,  young  and  old, 
fresh  water  should  be  kept  before  them  at  all  times 
and  the  drinking  dishes  should  be  deep  enough  so  that 
the  nostrils  may  be  cleansed.  Along  about  the  first 
of  November  these  birds  should  be  given  access  to  a 
mash  consisting  of  two  parts  wheat  bran,  one  part 
middlings,  one  part  corn  meal  and  one  part  meat 
scrap.  This  ration  should  be  continued  throughout 
the  breeding  season. 


Forty-Two 


PROGRESSIVE    POULTRY   RAISING 

Chapter  IX 

Geese 

Varieties — The  Toulouse  and  Embden  geese  are 
by  far  the  most  popular  breeds  for  farm  raising.  The 
Toulouse,  which  is  gray  in  color,  is  the  larger  of  the 
two,  the  young  gander  weighing  20  pounds  and  the 
young  goose  16  pounds.  The  adult  gander  weighs  26 
pounds  and  the  adult  goose  20  pounds.  The  Embdens 
are  white  geese  weighing  18  and  16  pounds  for  the 
young  gander  and  goose  respectively  while  the  adult 
male  and  female  weigh  20  and  18  pounds,  if  up  to 
standard  weight. 

Feeding  and  Management — Except  in  the  most 
extreme  weather  no  shelter  is  necessary  for  geese. 
When  some  protection  is  necessary  usually  a  sh^d  in- 
tended primarily  for  some  other  purpose  will  be  availa- 
ble. Geese  should  not  be  used  for  breeding  purposes 
until  they  are  coming  two  years  old  though  the 
ganders  may  be  used  the  first  season  and  for  several 
seasons  thereafter.  For  best  results  not  more  than  two 
geese  should  be  mated  to  one  gander.  While  goose 
eggs  may  be  artificially  hatched  and  brooded,  it  is 
usually  found  more  satisfactory  to  hatch  them  under 
hens.  Hens  used  for  hatching  eggs  should  be  carefully 
dusted  with  sodium  fluorid  and  given  good  care  during 
the  hatching  period  as  this  lasts  from  28  to  30  days. 
Whether  eggs  are  put  in  incubators  or  under  hens  they 
should  be  sprinkled  with  warm  water  every  day  during 
the  first  week.  The  first  goslings  should  not  be  hatched 
until  the  grass  is  green.  When  they  are  about  due  to 
hatch  if  hens  are  used  the  eggs  should  be  carefully 
watched  and  the  first  goslings  taken  out  as  soon  as  they 
hatch  and  wrapped  in  a  woolen  cloth  and  kept  in  a 
warm  place.     They  should  be  kept  away  from  the  nest 

Forty-Three 


PROGRESSIVE        POULTRY        RAISING 

until  the  youngest  goslings  are  several  hours  old,  when 
they  may  be  given  back  to  the  hen.  If  this  is  not  done 
the  hen  is  likely  to  become  restless  and  leave  the  nest 
with  the  older  goslings  before  the  late  ones  are  strong 
enough.  They  should  be  closely  confined  with  their 
mother  until  they  are  three  or  four  days  old,  after 
which  they  may  be  allowed  liberty  with  their  mother 
in  a  grassy  pasture. 

Goslings  should  be  fed  carefully  for  the  first  week  or 
ten  days  after  which  they  secure  most  of  their  food  if 
allowed  to  run  in  a  good  pasture.  The  rations  fed  by 
different  raisers  are  numerous  but  all  agree  in  feeding 
only  a  mash.  This  may  consist  of  corn  meal  to  which 
is  added  10  per  cent  of  meat  scrap,  or  five  parts  corn 
meal,  five  parts  shorts  and  one  part  meat  scrap.  Either 
of  these  rations  should  be  moistened  to  a  crumbling 
consistency  with  milk  or  water.  As  a  usual  thing 
mature  geese  will  be  self-maintaining  if  kept  on  a  good 
pasture.  In  case  of  drought  or  during  the  winter, 
however,  they  should  be  fed  such  bulky  feed  as  mangels, 
turnips  or  steamed  clover  supplemented  by  the  mash  of 
equal  parts  corn  meal,  bran  and  ground  oats.  For 
both  young  and  old  stock  there  ought  always  to  be  an 
abundance  of  drinking  water  handy  to  the  place  of 
feed.  Ground  bone  or  charcoal  should  always  be 
available.  Geese  intended  for  breeding  purposes 
usually  do  better  on  pasture  than  in  the  feeding  lot 
with  other  stock,  as  in  the  latter  case  they  are  likely 
to  get  too  fat. 


Forty-Four 


PROGRESSIVE        POULTRY        RAISING 

Chapter  X 

The  Poultry  Industry 

Geographical  Distribution  of  Poultry  Produc- 
tion— The  great  egg  and  poultry  producing  territories 
of  the  United  States  can  be  divided  according  to  their 
geographical  location  and  the  character  of  the  industry, 
into  three  quite  distinct  sections.  The  first  of  these 
comprises  the  northeastern  states,  including  New  Eng- 
land, New  York,  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey  and  Mary- 
land. This  is  a  section  in  which  the  poultry  industry 
is  one  of  importance  and  where  many  large  and  special- 
ized poultry  farms  are  located.  Inasmuch  as  it  also 
happens  to  be  one  of  the  greatest  consuming  sections 
of  poultry  products,  the  local  supply  does  not  meet  the 
demand,  and  large  quantities  are  brought  in  from 
other  parts  of  the  country. 

The  second  producing  section  comprises  the  states 
bordering  on  the  Pacific.  Here  the  conditions  are  in 
many  respects  identical  with  those  of  the  first  section, 
though  production  has  outrun  consumption  and  a 
considerable  surplus  is  now  marketed  in  the  east. 

The  third  section  comprises  principally  states  lying 
in  the  Mississippi  Valley.  They  are  Minnesota,  Wis- 
consin, Illinois,  Michigan,  Indiana,  Ohio,  Nebraska, 
Iowa,  Kansas,  Missouri,  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Okla- 
homa, Arkansas  and  Texas.  In  this  great  section  the 
vast  majority  of  the  eggs  are  produced;  yet  the  charac- 
ter of  the  poultry  keeping  is  quite  different  from  that 
in  the  other  two  sections  discussed.  There  are  in  this 
whole  stretch  of  country  few  farms  which  can  properly 
be  termed  poultry  farms  or  where  poultry  raising  can 
properly  be  considered  one  of  the  main  branches  of 
the  farm  work. 

Forty-Five 


PROGRESSIVE  POULTRY        RAISING 

Present   Organization   of  Poultry   Industry — 

The  poultry  industry  as  a  whole  is  a  combination  of 
several  more  or  less  clearly  defined  co-ordinate  indus- 
tries which  have  to  do  with  growing  and  marketing 
poultry  and  poultry  products.  Classifying  them  ac- 
cording to  the  particular  industries  in  which  they  are 
engaged,  the  persons  associated  with  the  poultry 
industry  may  be  designated  as  (1)  production  breeders; 
(2)  fanciers  and  fancier  breeders;  (3)  producers;  (4) 
custom  hatchers  and  baby  chick  dealers;  (5)  buyers; 
(6)  packers  and  (7)  distributors. 

Between  these  groups  there  are  no  hard  and  fast 
lines  and  the  same  person  frequently  engages  in  more 
than  one  line  of  work.  Thus  the  producer  of  the  best 
type  carries  on  breeding  operations  within  certain 
limits,  the  production  breeder  should  be  somewhat  of  a 
fancier  and  the  packer  is  usually  a  buyer  and  may  be 
a  distributor  as  well. 

The  Production-Breeder — A  breeder  is  one  who 
seeks  to  improve  stock  through  proper  selection  and 
mating.  From  the  standpoint  of  poultry  production, 
improvement  refers  to  an  increased  efficiency  in  the 
production  of  human  food.  A  breeder  whose  primary 
aim  is  to  raise  the  food-manufacturing  efficiency  of  any 
species  of  poultry  may  for  convenience  be  called  a 
"production  breeder."  A  comparatively  small,  but 
constantly  growing  number  of  breeders  are  turning 
their  attention  toward  production.  Their  principal 
function  with  regard  to  production  is  to  furnish  the 
producer  with  breeding  males  of  standard  varieties 
with  which  to  improve  his  flocks  whether  the  flocks 
are  mongrel  or  purebred.  Pedigree  breeding,  the  only 
method  by  which  prepotent  males  able  to  sire  efficient 
producers  can  be  produced  with  any  regularity,  is  out 
of  reach  of  the  producer  who  must  make  his  profit  by 
securing  a  narrow  margin  on  many  birds,  rather  than 

Forty-Six 


PROGRESSIVE        POULTRY        RAISING 

a  wide  one  on  a  few.  The  true  breeder,  however,  is  a 
producer  in  the  very  best  and  highest  sense.  For  the 
producer  can  follow  only  as  far  as  the  breeder  leads  the 
way. 

Fanciers  and  Fancier-Breeders — The  term  "fan- 
cier" refers  to  a  person  who  breeds  poultry  as  an  art 
rather  than  for  the  production  of  food,  while  a  "fancier- 
breeder"  is  one  who  breeds  poultry  for  fanciers.  At 
the  present  time  the  fancier-breeders  as  far  outnumber 
the  production-breeders  as  the  fanciers  are  outnum- 
bered by  producers. 

The  preponderance  of  fancier-breeders  over  produc- 
tion-breeders is  largely  due  to  three  causes.  The  first 
is  the  elaborate  poultry  show  system  in  vogue  in  this 
country,  the  second  is  the  lack  of  anything  like  the 
general  adoption  of  a  merit  system  in  the  purchase  of 
farm  poultry  products,  and  the  third  is  a  profound 
ignorance  of  the  laws  of  productive  breeding. 

The  Producer — A  "producer"  is  a  person  who 
raises  poultry  primarily  for  human  consumption. 
While  there  is  at  present  an  undoubted  tendency  for 
the  production  of  poultry  and  eggs  for  food  to  be  made 
a  specialty,  well  over  ninety  percent  of  the  poultry 
products  marketed  in  the  United  States  are  produced 
on  general  farms  where  poultry  raising  is  one  phase  of 
a  diversified  agriculture. 

In  the  extreme  eastern  and  western  states,  and  in 
the  vicinity  of  certain  of  the  large  cities  of  the  central 
states  there  are  sections  containing  numerous  small 
farms  given  over  to  the  production  of  eggs  and  poultry 
for  special  trades.  Possibly  most  famous  of  these  is 
the  Petaluma  district  of  California  which  specializes 
in  white  eggs  and  markets  its  surplus  on  the  New  York 
market,  which  demands  a  white  egg.  The  Vineland 
district  in  New  Jersey  furnishes  new-laid  white  eggs 
for  the  fancy  trade  in  New  York.     The  Little  Compton 

Forty-Seven 


PROGRESSIVE        POULTRY        RAISING 

district  of  Rhode  Island  produces  brown  eggs  for  the 
New  England  markets. 

Specialized,  intensive,  small  poultry  farms  bear  a 
somewhat  similar  relation  to  general  poultry  produc- 
tion that  the  greenhouse  culture  of  vegetables  does  to 
general  market  gardening.  They  are  useful  for  the 
production  of  out-of-season  luxuries  for  the  wealthy, 
but  have  little  to  do  with  feeding  the  nation.  And  in 
common  with  the  production  of  luxuries  generally, 
though  large  and  tempting  profits  are  sometimes  made, 
they  are  hazardous  as  an  exclusive  occupation. 

The  general  farm  producer  usually  disposes  of  his 
products  as  staples  and  his  problem,  since  he  sells  at 
the  current  quotation,  is  to  reduce  the  cost  of  produc- 
tion. Where  the  poultry  or  eggs  are  handled  as 
specialties,  the  great  problem  is  marketing,  of  getting 
a  special  or  fancy  price  for  each  individual  unit  of  the 
product. 

The  Custom  Hatcher  and  Baby  Chick  Dealer — 

A  present  tendency  in  poultry  production  is  for  the 
producer  to  depend  upon  a  skilled  hatcher  to  furnish 
him  with  living  chicks.  This  practice  though  ages 
old  in  Egypt  and  China,  is  a  comparatively  recent 
development  in  America.  Though  assuming  large 
proportions,  the  baby  chick  industry  is  yet  in  its  in- 
fancy in  this  country  and  an  expansion  hardly  yet 
dreamed  of  is  the  prospect  of  the  next  few  years.  It 
is  not  improbable  that  the  hatching  of  chicks  for  the 
surrounding  territory  may  ultimately  become  as  cen- 
tralized a  function  as  fattening  and  finishing  already 
have. 

The  term  "custom  hatcher"  refers  to  a  person  who 
incubates,  for  a  consideration,  eggs  which  he  does  not 
own,  usually  for  nearby  producers.  Good  sized  cen- 
tralized hatching  plants  are  appearing  in  most  com- 
munities where  poultry  forms  an  important  item  among 

Forty-Eight 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY   RAISING 

the  agricultural  products.  This  takes  the  bother  of 
hatching  and  the  necessity  of  purchasing  an  incubator 
away  from  the  farm,  yet  allows  the  producer  to  develop 
his  own  line  of  stock. 

The  baby  chick  dealer  is  one  who  owns  the  eggs  he 
incubates  and  sells  the  chicks.  The  latter  are  frequently 
hatched  by  the  thousand  and  may  be  shipped  hundreds 
of  miles  to  customers.  At  the  present  time  over  two- 
thirds  of  the  baby  chicks  sold  go  to  city  or  town  cus- 
tomers. 

The  Buyer — In  nearly  every  trading  point  in  the 
United  States  there  is  someone  who  is  willing  to  buy 
eggs  and  poultry  from  the  producer  at  any  season  of  the 
year.  At  the  smaller  points  this  is  usually  the  mer- 
chant of  whom  the  farmer  buys  his  supplies,  and  who 
pays  for  the  poultry  and  eggs  in  trade.  At  larger 
points  there  are  likely  to  be,  besides  the  merchant 
one  or  more  persons  who  give  their  whole  attention 
to  buying  farm  produce,  and  in  many  cases  to  buying 
poultry  produce  alone.  Such  a  buyer  usually  pays  a 
little  less  than  the  merchant  gives  in  trade,  but  is  able 
to  handle  a  considerable  volume  of  business  because 
he  makes  immediate  payment  in  cash.  To  be  a  really 
efficient  member  of  the  poultry  industry  a  buyer  should 
give  his  quotations  only  on  a  quality  basis  and  provide 
himself  with  refrigerator  facilities. 

Whether  the  buyer  is  a  merchant,  an  independent 
produce  man,  or  an  agent  of  the  packer  or  distributor, 
his  is  the  first  step  in  the  gathering  and  concentrating 
of  a  gigantic  crop  of  highly  perishable  products,  aggre- 
gating hundreds  of  millions  in  value,  from  very  many 
farms  whose  average  yearly  sales  probably  amount  to 
a  few  hundred  dollars  at  most.  As  indicated  in 
Fig.  3,  the  original  buyer  may  be  any  one  of  several 
classes  of  dealers,  or  in  sparsely  settled  districts  where 
concentration,  assembly  and  grading  are  difficult,  the 

Forty-Nine 


PROGRESSIVE        POULTRY        RAISING 

goods  may  pass  through  the  hands  of  as  many  as  three 
classes  of  buyers  before  the  work  of  distribution  is 
begun. 


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Fig.  3. — Showing  routes  by  which  poultry  products  reach 
the  consumer  from  the  producer. 


Fijt» 


PROGRESSIVE        POULTRY        RAISING 

The  Packer — The  function  of  a  packer  is  to  prepare 
food  products  for  preservation  and  consumption,  and 
to  preserve  them.  The  home  killing  of  poultry  for 
general  consumption  is  passing  just  as  the  home 
slaughtering  of  beef  and  pork  has  largely  given  way  to 
the  slaughterhouses  of  the  large  packing  centers. 

The  states  of  Kansas,  Iowa,  Nebraska,  Missouri, 
Minnesota,  Indiana  and  Tennessee  are  those  in  which 
the  poultry-packing  business  has  shown  the  greatest 
development.  While  it  is  carried  on  to  a  greater  or 
less  extent  in  all  the  states,  most  of  the  establishments 
dressing  poultry  or  shipping  eggs  are  small,  without 
adequate  equipment  and  employing  only  the  crudest 
methods. 

The  present  tendency  is  toward  centralized  plants 
having  all  the  facilities  of  a  first-class  packing  establish- 
ment, of  which  mechanical  refrigeration  is  the  most 
fundamental  item. 

Aside  from  dressing  and  preserving  poultry,  elimi- 
nating the  bad  eggs  (which,  under  the  present  general 
system  of  buying  eggs  from  producers  without  regard 
to  quality,  are  bound  to  find  their  way  into  the  channels 
of  trade),  and  preserving  the  good  ones,  the  packer  has 
been  forced  by  the  exigencies  of  the  business  to  take 
up  the  work  of  fattening  and  finishing  the  poultry 
before  killing  it. 

The  Distributor — As  indicated  in  Fig.  3,  poultry 
products  may  reach  the  consumer  by  various  routes. 
In  a  very  small  proportion  of  cases  the  producer  deals 
with  the  consumer  direct,  and  is  also  a  distributor.  In 
an  increasing,  though  still  small,  number  of  cases,  the 
local  buyer  is  a  merchant  who  retails  the  products 
at  the  place  of  production.  In  the  great  majority  of 
cases,  however,  both  eggs  and  poultry  reach  the  con- 
sumer by  a  more  circuitous  route.  After  the  products 
have  been  concentrated  in  the  hands  of  the  wholesale 

Fifty-One 


PROGRESSIVE    POULTRY   RAISING 

buyers,  including  the  packers,  they  may  be  turned  over 
to  a  commission  merchant  or  broker,  who  disposes  of 
them  to  the  jobber  in  quite  large  quantities.  The 
jobber  in  turn  distributes  them  among  the  various 
retailing  agencies,  which  include  the  retail  markets, 
bakeries,  confectioneries,  hotels,  clubs,  restaurants, 
dining  cars,  the  steamship  dining  service,  and  the  like, 
which  deal  directly  with  the  consumer. 

There  are  numerous  modifications  of  this  route. 
One  or  more  of  these  steps  in  distribution  may  be 
eliminated,  as  would  be  the  case  if  a  local  buyer  or 
co-operative  marketing  association  dealt  directly  with 
the  packer  or  the  retailer  in  sparsely  settled  sections, 
or  the  packer  sold  to  a  hotel,  but  the  great  bulk  of  the 
goods  at  present  passes  through  the  several  steps  indi- 
cated at  the  left  of  Fig.  3.  The  fundamental  reason  for 
this  is  that  the  value  of  the  individual  unit  in  poultry 
is  so  small  that  it  is  cheaper  to  pass  assembling  and 
distribution  through  several  hands  than  to  integrate 
all  services  of  slaughter,  dressing,  grading,  packing, 
transportation,  etc.,  under  one  head.  In  other  words, 
the  poultry  trade  of  a  retail  store  or  of  a  hotel,  club 
or  restaurant  is  so  small  that  the  time  of  a  single 
employe  required  to  perform  necessary  services  costs 
out  of  all  proportion  to  the  volume  of  poultry  handled. 

The  Magnitude  of  the  Poultry  Industry — The 

1911  report  of  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  placed  the 
national  annual  income  from  poultry  products  at 
$750,000,000,  or  approximately  the  combined  value  of 
the  gold,  silver,  iron  and  coal  mined  the  same  year. 
The  report  of  the  1920  census  places  the  national 
annual  income  from  eggs  produced  and  poultry  raised 
at  a  little  over  $1,047,000,000,  leaving  the  production 
of  the  villages,  towns  and  cities  unaccounted  for. 

The  census  figures  for  the  different  states,  while 
incomplete,  are  fairly  comparable,  because  of  the  fact 

Fi/ty-Two 


PROGRESSIVE        POULTRY        RAISING 

that  the  same  method  was  used  in  securing  them  in 
each  of  the  several  states.  The  first  ten  states  in 
point  of  value  of  poultry  and  eggs  produced  are  shown 
in  Table  2. 

Table  2. — The  Rank  of  the  First  Ten  States  with  Reference  to  the 
Value  of  the  Total  Production  of  Eggs  and  Chickens  in  19 19. 

Total  Value 
Rank  State  Chicken  Producers 

1  Iowa $70,212,644 

2  Illinois 67,690,085 

3  Missouri 66,271,029 

4  Ohio 64.109.133 

5  Pennsylvania 53,709.243 

6  Indiana 52.765,970 

7  Kansas 44.199.844 

8  Texas 43,303.622 

9  New  York 42,841.499 

10  California 40,341.744 

Comparative  Numbers  of  Different  Species  of 
Poultry — Chickens  are  of  pre-eminent  importance 
among  the  various  species  of  poultry.  The  total 
number  of  poultry  found  on  the  farms  of  the  United 
States  January  1,  1920,  was  372,825,264  birds.  Of 
these  96.4  percent  (359,537,127)  were  chickens;  a  little 
over  1  percent  (3,627,028)  were  turkeys;  less  than  .75 
percent  (2,817,624)  were  ducks;  a  trifle  over  .78  percent 
(2,939,203)  were  geese;  while  the  total  for  guineas 
(2.410.421),  pigeons  (1,493,630)  and  ostriches  (231) 
was  slightly  over  1  percent  (3,904,282). 

Although  90.5  percent  of  all  the  farms  of  the  United 
States  reported  chickens,  there  was  but  .3  percent  that 
reported  any  species  of  poultry  that  did  not  report 
chickens.  From  1910  to  1920  the  number  of  chickens 
in  the  United  States  increased  28.2  percent,  while 
during  the  same  period  the  number  of  turkeys,  ducks  and 
geese  decreased  1.7,  3.1  and  33.7  percent  respectively. 

Fifty-Three 


PROGRESSIVE        POULTRY        RAISING 

It  should  be  noted  in  this  connection,  however,  that 
the  figures  of  1910  and  1920  are  not  strictly  com- 
parable. This  is  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  1910 
enumeration  was  made  April  15,  and  takes  into  ac- 
count no  chickens  under  three  months  of  age,  while  the 
enumeration  of  1920  was  as  of  January  1.  The  abso- 
lute gain  in  the  number  of  chickens  was  undoubtedly 
less  than  the  foregoing  would  indicate  while  the  de- 
creases of  the  other  species  were  probably  greater. 

The  popularity  of  the  chicken  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  it  furnishes  a  convenient  source  of  fresh  meat  on 
the  farm,  and  is,  almost  universally,  a  greater  egg  pro- 
ducer than  are  other  sorts  of  poultry. 

Eggs  the  Principal  Poultry  Product — Eggs  are 
the  primary  poultry  product.  The  average  state  in- 
come from  poultry  products  sold  in  1919  was  $10,699,- 
704,  of  which  only  $2,443,318  was  credited  to  poultry 
carcasses  sold,  while  $8,256,386  or  considerable  over 
three-fourths  of  the  total  income  was  credited  to  eggs. 

At  the  same  time  the  average  annual  farm  income 
from  eggs  for  all  the  farms  in  the  United  States  was 
$98.95,  as  shown  by  the  census  of  1920,  and  the  income 
from  carcasses  sold  was  $44.37,  or  considerably  less 
than  half  as  much. 

The  reason  for  this  difference  probably  lies  in  the 
uniqueness  of  eggs  among  human  foods,  their  high 
digestibility,  healthfulness,  and  general  attractiveness. 
It  is  likely  to  continue  until  some  economic  condition 
arises  whereby  the  poultry  carcass  becomes  more 
highly  valued  by  the  general  public,  in  comparison 
with  the  egg,  than  at  present.  In  the  light  of  recent 
discoveries  concerning  their  content  of  food  accessories 
or  vitamins,  eggs  are  likely  to  increase  in  esteem,  rather 
than  decrease. 

Although  the  eggs  of  ducks  and  guineas  find  their 
way  into  the  regular  channels  of  trade,  their  number 

Fijty-Four 


PROGRESSIVE        POULTRY        RAISING 

is  so  small  when  compared  with  the  number  of  hens' 
eggs  as  to  make  them  practically  a  neglible  quantity. 
Turkey  and  goose  eggs  are  used  for  hatching  purposes 
only. 

Farm  Incomes  fromi  Poultry — The  importance 
of  a  state  as  a  factor  in  an  industry  and  the  importance 
of  that  industry  to  the  state  in  the  case  of  poultry 
production,  are  very  different  matters.  While  Cali- 
fornia, for  instance,  ranks  tenth  in  the  total  state 
income  from  poultry  products,  she  ranks  first  in  the 
average  farm  income  derived  from  poultry. 

According  to  the  1920  census  report  the  average 
farm  income  from  poultry  products  sold  in  the  United 
States  was  $143.33.  Figures  are  not  available  which 
show  what  proportion  of  the  average  total  farm  income 
the  average  income  from  poultry  is,  but  it  seems  reason- 
able to  suppose  it  will  generally  be  greatest  in  those 
states  whose  average  farm  income  from  poultry  is 
largest.  The  ten  states  showing  the  largest  average 
farm  incomes  from  poultry  sold  are  listed  according 
to  their  income  in  Table  3. 

Table  3.—  The  Relative  Rank  of  the  First  Ten  States  with 
Reference  to  the  Average  Farm  Income  from  Poultry. 

Average  Farm  Income 
Rank         State  Poultry  Products  Sold 

1  California $636.86 

2  New  Jersey 399 .02 

3  Rhode  Island 374.67 

4  Massachusetts 374 .  29 

5  Utah 329.82 

6  Conneticut 282 .  07 

7  Washington 252 .  59 

8  New  Hampshire 250 .71 

9  Delaware 234.83 

10  Nevada 229.92 

In  addition  to  the  cash  income,  the  poultry  products 
consumed  on  the  farm  must  be  considered.  The 
average  quantities  of  home  produced  meats  (including 
eggs)  consumed  in  1920  by  955  families  (average  size 

Fifty-Five 


PROGRESSIVE        POULTRY        RAISING 

4.8  adults  or  equivalent),  in  fourteen  states  was  re- 
ported in  Farmers  Bulletin  1 082,  to  be  as  shown  in  Table 
4.  Poultry  and  eggs  furnish  39  percent  of  the  home 
produced  meat  food. 

Table  4. — Home-Produced  Meat  Foods  Consumed 
Annually  by  Farm  Families. 

Pounds 

Pork  and  lard 499 

Beef 97 

Poultry 226 

Eggs _1£6 

Total 978 


Fi/ty^ix 


PROGRESSIVE        POULTRY        RAISING 


Chapter  XI 

Poultry  and  Egg  Prices 

Prices  of  Eggs— According  to  Pennington  and 
Pierce  in  the  1910  yearbook  of  the  Department  of 
Agriculture,  the  output  of  eggs  is  steadily  growing,  but 
the  demand  is  growing  even  faster  than  the  supply, 
due  to  the  increased  preference  for  eggs  as  food ;  hence 
their  price  has  risen.  In  1 899  the  farm  price  was  11.15 
cents  per  dozen,  as  an  average  for  the  United  States; 
in  1909  the  average  was  19.7  cents,  weighted  according 
to  monthly  production. 

The  average  farm  price  per  dozen  eggs  on  the  first 
day  of  each  month  from  January,  1910,  to  December, 
1921,  is  shown  in  Table  5. 

Table  5. — Department  of  Agriculture  Average  Farm  Price 
per  Dozen  Eggs  on  the  First  of  Each  Month  Since  1910. 


1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918  1919 1920  1921  Ayenige 


January .... 
February . . . 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August   .... 
September   . , 

October 

November.. . 
December 


30.4 
922.1 
16.5 
14.9 
14.7 
14.5 
14.2 
15.5 
17.4 
20.0 
23.5 
28.7 


26.8 
22.8 


30. 7131. 630 
28 


4 

19.4(24.2 

.6 


6 
29.2126.8 


21.3 


21 


37.7146.3 
4 


35.8 


49 


16.4 
16.1 
16.9 
17.0 
17.2 
19.5 
23.4 


.3 
6 
.2 
0 
5 
927.425.3 


2 
16.617.9 


33.840 


17.1 
16.6 
16.8 
17.0 


18.723 


22.3 
26.3 


33.029.730.6 


25.9 

30.0 

31.1 

7128.3 

729.8 

33.2 

37.4 

239.4 

143.3 


57.2 
48.3 
33.1 
34.3 
36.8 
38.6 
36.8 
39.3 
441.0 
6144.7 
54.0 


.2 
.1 
.9 
61.965.0 


61.1 
49.6 
29.2 
20.4 
30.2 
19.4 
7(22.0 
0  26.6 
30.4 
34.2 
44.2 
51.1 


39.8 
35.6 
27.8 
32.5 
22.8 
22.9 
22.9 
24.5 
27.0 
30.8 
35.6 
41.3 


Average..  20.8  17.3  20.2119.3  20.  5  19.822.2  31 .936. 1  40. 4'43  .7  28.4    26.7 


Note. — The  averages  for  the  year  are  based  upon  the  following  "  "weights"  for  the 
monthly  prices:  January.  February,  December,  each  4;  March.  9;  April  and 
May,  each  15;  June.  13;  July.  10;  August,  8;  September.  7;  October,  6;  Novem- 
ber, 5.  These  figures  represent,  approximately,  the  normal  relative  sales  at 
each  monthly  price 

Prices  of  Poultry  Products — As  indicative  of  the 
advance  in  prices  of  poultry  as  well  as  eggs  during  the 
last  twenty-four  years,  the  weighted  average  New 
York   prices    (estimated),    furnished   by   the   "Urner- 

FiftySeven 


PROGRESSIVE        POULTRY        RAISING 

Barry  Company",  New  York  City,  are  given  in  Table 
6.  These  prices  represent  those  paid  wholesale  re- 
ceivers by  jobbers  for  western  products,  all  grades 
considered  except  extras  in  the  case  of  eggs. 

Table  6. — Weighted  New  York  Average  Prices  (Estimated)  on 

Eggs,  Live  and  Dressed  Poultry  for  the  Years 

1896  to  192 1,  inclusive. 

Live  IDressed 

Year  Eggs  Poultry  Poultry 

1896 14.00  9.00  10.00 

1897 14.50  8.50  9.00 

1898 15.50  8.80  9.10 

1899 17.00  9.80  11.00 

1900 16.00  9.30  10.00 

1901 18.00  9.50  11.00 

1902 20.00  11.50  14.50 

1903 18.50  12.50  15.50 

1904 20.00  12.50  15.00 

1905 20.00  13.00  16.00 

1906 19.00  12.80  15.00 

1907 18.50  13.80  15.50 

1908 19.00  13.50  15.80 

1909 23.50  16.00  18.30 

1910 23.00  17.00  19.80 

1911 19.30  15.00  17.80 

1912 22.80  15.50  18.30 

1913 21.60  16.00  18.50 

1914 23.10  16.20  17.50 

1915 22.40  15.70  16.20 

1916 26.00  18.75  20.25 

1917 37.00  24.00  23.00 

1918 42.00  33.00  30.00 

1919 48.00  32.00  37.00 

1920 52.40  35.40  38.20 

1921 36.50  28.90  35.20 

Storage  and  Egg  Prices — During  these  same  years 
the  Chicago  prices  into  and  out  of  storage  are  shown 
in  Table  7.  These  figures  were  obtained  through  the 
courtesy  of  Paul  Mandeville,  Merrill  and  Eldredge,  and 
S.  S.  Borden  Co.,  Chicago. 

Fi/ty-Eight 


PROGRESSIVE        POULTRY        RAISING 


Table  7. — Cost  of  Storage  Packed  Eggs  into  Store, 
f.  o.  b.  Chicago 

Year                                  April  May                              June 

1896 93^to  IIM  83^  to  11  101^  to  11^ 

1897 8H  to    9M  83^  to  1 1  9^  to  103^ 

1898 9      to  10^  9      tollH  93^tol2 

1899 llMtol3i^  12     toI5  13      to  143^ 

1900 lO^to  113^  103^  to  13  113^  to  14 

1901 12      to  131^  11      to  11^  10^  to  123^ 

1902 143^  to  17  153^  to  IbH  15^  to  17 

1903 14^  to  15^  15   to  16  143^  to  16 

1904 163^  to  18  173^  to  18  163^  to  18 

1905 16^  to  171^  16   to  17  U%to\5% 

1906 153^  to  18  15   to  16^  \5}4to\6H 

1907 163^  to  173^  16   to  173^  15   to  153^ 

1908 15   to  16^  16   to  163^  16   to  17 

1909 18iito223^  21   to  223^  193^  to  21 

1910 21   to  22^  1934  to  21  19   to  20 

1911 \5^tol7}4  16   to  17M  15   to  16 

1912 193^  to  213^  19   to203€  183^  to  193^^ 

1913 183^  to  19  l8Htol9}4  18   to  19 

1914 19   to  19M  \8}4to\9H  19   to  19^ 

1915 193^  to  20^  183^  to  1934  18   to  19 

1916 20^  to  223^  213^  to  223^  21^  to  22M 

1917 30Mto36^  34      to  3634  303^  to  353^ 

1918 33%  to  36  33      to  353^  32      to  36 

1919 41Kto44  42^  to  46  38^  to  43 

1920 43      to  45%  42      to  45  403^  to  42% 

Selling  Price  of  Aprils  and  Northern  Mays,  Including 
Carrying  Charges  f.  o.  b.  Chicago. 

Year                               October  November                          December 

1896 14   to  15  15   to  17  13   to  17 

1897 13   to  133^  113^  to  13^  12   to  15 

1898 13>^tol43^  14   to  163^  16   to  19 

1899 16   to  163^  15   to  16  13   to  16 

1900 153^  to  163^  153^  to  19  19   to  21 

1901 163^  to  17  163^  to  18  18   to  20 

1902 19   to  20  19   to  20  20   to  20^ 

1903 193^  to  203^  203^  to  25  24   to  29 

1904 18   to  183^  18   to  21  19   to21H 

1905 19   to  20%  20   to  203^  19   to  203^ 

1906 20   to  20^  203^  to  223^  20   to  24 

1907 16%  to  191^  153^  to  17  153^  to  17 

1908 203^  to  223^  223^  to  25  23   to  27 

Fifty-Nine 


PROGRESSIVE        POULTRY        RAISING 


Year  October  November  December 

1909 221^  to  233^  22   to  23^  21   to  24i^ 

1910 22Mto23  2234  to  23^  21   to  22^ 

1911 183^  to  19^  193^  to  22  21   to  23 

1912 223^  to  23^  21   to  223^  173^  to  21 

1913 23      to  263^  25      to  28  25      to  303^ 

1914 20      to  2234  203^  to  24  20      to  253/^ 

1915 22^  to  233^  20Mto23J^  203^  to  22 

1916 263^  to  3034  30      to  37  28      to  3434 

1917 32^  to  37  30      to  333^  31      to  41 

1918 393^  to  443^  43      to  443^  42Hto45 

1919 44      to  47  46      to  48  4734  to  50 

1920 46      to  50  48      to  563^  56      to  59 

On  the  average  it  will  be  seen  that  by  storage  the 
price  of  eggs  per  dozen  is  increased  from  two  to  six 
cents,  averaging  somewhat  above  three.  When  one 
considers  the  cost  of  maintaining  cold  storage  ware- 
houses, the  expense  involved  in  grading  and  sorting, 
and  the  regular  loss  due  to  spoilage  and  breakage,  as 
well  as  the  fact  that  only  in  this  way  can  a  year-around 
product  be  provided ;  this  margin  seems  very  reasonable 
in  proportion  to  the  services  performed. 


Sixty 


PROGRESSIVE        POULTRY        RAISING 

Chapter  XII 

Grades  and  Classes  of  Eggs. 

Grades  of  Eggs — The  different  kinds  and  degrees 
of  deterioration  have  led  to  the  classification  of  eggs 
into  generally  recognized  commercial  grades  known  as 
firsts,  seconds,  checks,  leakers,  spots,  blood  rings  and 
rots.  The  grading  is  done  by  means  of  a  "candle." 
Candle  is  the  name  given  to  an  egg  tester  when  it  is 
used  in  connection  with  market  eggs.  It  operates  on 
precisely  the  same  principle  as  the  lamp  tester  usually 
sent  by  incubator  manufacturers,  and  usually  consists 
of  a  tin  can  with  a  hole  in  the  side  and  an  electric  light 
bulb  inside. 

In  addition  to  the  foregoing  many  markets  have 
additional  grades  such  as  the  "Extra  Fancy"  or  "Near- 
by Hennery  Whites"  which  are  furnished  by  producers 
in  the  territory  immediately  surrounding. 

Firsts — A  first  is  the  nearest  approach  to  a  fresh 
egg  that  is  known  to  the  general  egg  trade.  Besides 
being  new  laid  it  must  be  clean  and  unwashed,  average 
very  close  to  45  pounds  to  the  thirty-dozen  case  (13^ 
pounds  per  dozen),  show  a  very  small  air  cell,  and  a 
smooth,  strong  shell  free  from  cracks.  Only  firsts  are 
usually  considered  as  fit  for  storage. 

Seconds — Second-class  eggs  are  those  which  are 
not  up  to  standard  in  physical  qualities  or  show  a  more 
or  less  marked  deterioration  in  food  qualities.  The 
poor  physical  qualities  that  cause  rejection  for  the  first 
grade,  without  regard  to  its  food  qualities,  are  lack  of 
size,  being  dirty,  stained,  washed  or  having  a  markedly 
rough  or  misshapen  shell. 

The  kinds  of  deterioration  in  food  quality  and  which 
render  them  unfit  for  successful  preservation  by  storage 
or  preservative  compounds  are  evidences  of  heating, 

Sixty-One 


PROGRESSIVE        POULTRY        RAISING 

shrinkage,  blood  clots  and  discoloration  of  the  albumen 
giving  what  are  known  to  the  trade  as  "grass"  eggs. 

Checks — Checks  are  cracked  eggs.  Those  in 
which  the  crack  is  small  and  the  contents  of  the  egg  is 
still  retained  are  called  "blind  checks."  Where  the 
contents  are  escaping  they  are  designated  as  "leakers." 
Such  eggs  may  be  perfectly  sweet  and  wholesome, 
but  are  extremely  perishable,  and  are  good  for  im- 
mediate consumption,  or  to  be  broken  out  and  frozen. 

Spots — Eggs  in  which  mould  or  bacteria  has 
developed  in  isolated  areas  inside  the  shell  are  called 
"spots."  They  are  not  fit  for  food.  Eggs  in  which 
the  yolk  has  adhered  to  the  shell  are  also  classed  as 
spots,  being  known  as  "stuck  spots."  These  eggs  are 
unfit  for  food,  but  may  be  used  for  tanning  purposes. 

Blood  Rings — In  fertile  eggs  in  which  the  embryo 
has  so  far  developed  as  to  show  considerable  blood  and 
then  died,  the  blood  is  usually  left  in  a  more  or  less 
imperfect  circle  surrounding  the  germ.  Before  the 
candle  this  appears  as  a  pink  ring  which  from  its  nature 
has  given  the  name  "blood  ring"  to  eggs  containing 
dead  germs.  These  eggs  are  declared  by  the  govern- 
ment authorities  to  be  unfit  for  human  food  and  are 
a  total  loss,  except  that  in  the  vicinity  of  tanneries  they 
may  be  disposed  of  at  a  very  low  price  for  use  in  tan- 
ning certain  classes  of  leather  goods. 

Producing  Good  Eggs — While  it  is  possible  to 
keep  a  good  egg,  that  is  produced  in  March  and  April, 
good  until  mid-winter,  a  good  egg  cannot  be  made  from 
a  poor  one.  During  the  spring  month  before  the  hot 
weather  sets  in  most  of  the  eggs  marketed  arrive  in 
fairly  good  condition  but  with  the  onset  of  warm 
weather  the  situation  is  much  changed  and  eggs  reach 
the  packing  house  in  considerable  numbers  that  are 

Sixty-Two 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY   RAISING 

not  only  not  fit  for  storage  but  are  actually  unfit  for 
use  as  food  at  all. 

The  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  has  carried  on 
investigations  which  show  that  the  following  simple 
precautions  taken  during  the  very  hot  weather  re- 
sulted in  the  marketing  of  eggs  which  graded  97  per 
cent  first  class.  These  results  were  reported  in  Bulletin 
No.  160  of  the  Animal  Husbandry  Department,  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture. 

1.  Infertile  eggs  were  produced  by  keeping  the 
males  from  the  laying  flock.  As  has  already  been 
suggested,  this  may  be  accomplished  by  disposing  of 
the  cockerels  as  broilers  before  they  reach  the  breeding 
age,  or  by  caponizing. 

2.  The  hens  were  furnished  plenty  of  roomy,  clean 
nests. 

3.  The  eggs  were  gathered  twice  daily. 

4.  They  were  kept  in  a  cellar  that  was  cool,  dry 
and  free  from  odors. 

5.  The  eggs  were  taken  to  market  twice  a  week, 
being  carefully  protected  from  the  sun  on  the  way  to 
town. 

6.  The  eggs  that  were  small,  dirty,  misshapen  or 
found  in  stolen  nests  were  kept  for  home  use. 


Sixty-Thr 


PROGRESSIVE        POULTRY        RAISING 

Chapter  XIII 

Grades  and  Classes  of  Poultry 

Market    Classification    of    Live    Poultry — The 

market  grades  and  classes  of  poultry  both  alive  and 
dressed  vary  somewhat  in  different  parts  of  the  country 
and  with  different  packers.  The  classifications  which 
follow  are  fairly  representative  of  the  general  practice 
in  this  regard.  Live  chickens  are  classified  according 
to  sex,  size,  age  or  hardness  of  bone,  into  (1)  broilers, 
(2)  springs,  (3)  fowl,  (4)  stags,  (5)  capons,  (6)  slips. 
(7)  roosters. 

( 1 )  A  broiler  is  a  young  chicken  of  either  sex  weigh- 
ing two  pounds  or  under.  (2)  A  spring  is  a  young, 
soft-boned  bird  of  either  sex  that  weighs  over  two 
pounds.  (3)  A  fowl  is  a  hen  (female  over  one  year 
old),  or  a  pullet  that  shows  too  much  hardness  in  the 
breast  bone  (keel)  to  be  classed  as  a  spring.  (4)  Stags 
are  cockerels  that  exhibit  too  much  hardness  of  bone, 
development  of  spurs  or  comb  to  be  classed  as  springs, 
but  not  enough  to  be  classed  as  roosters.  (5)  Capons 
are  cleanly  castrated  male  birds.  (6)  Slips  are  birds 
upon  which  the  operation  of  castration  has  not  been 
entirely  successful.  (7)  Roosters  are  cocks  (male 
birds  over  one  year  old). 

Chickens  with  black  legs  are  discriminated  against 
in  the  dressed  poultry  trade  as  the  carcasses  invariably 
have  a  large  number  of  pin  feathers. 

Turkeys  are  classified  as  young  (under  one  year) 
and  old  (over  one  year)  toms,  young  and  old  hens, 
though  some  packers  make  the  age  distinction  only 
in  the  case  of  the  toms.  Ducks  are  usually  marketed 
as  green  (young)  roasting  ducks.  Geese  are  classified 
as  young  and  old,  one  year  being  the  dividing  point. 

Sixty-Four 


o 


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be 

51 


PROGRESSIVE        POULTRY        RAISING 

Grades  of  Dressed  Chickens — The  same  terms 
do  not  always  refer  to  the  same  weights  in  the  dressed 
classification  as  they  do  in  the  live  classification.  In 
the  following  classification  the  weights  are  for  a  dozen 
birds  in  each  case  whereas  the  weights  in  the  live  classi- 
fication are  for  single  birds. 

Class  Weight  Grade 

{1st  grade 
2nd  grade 
3rd  grade 
4th  grade 
{1st  grade 
2nd  grade 
3rd  grade 
4th  grade 
{1st  grade 
2nd  grade 
3rd  grade 
4th  grade 
{1st  grade 
2nd  grade 
3rd  grade 
4th  grade 


fist  grade 


Fryers  31  to  36  pounds J  2nd  grade 

(Also  referred  to  as  chickens  commercially.)  ]  3rd  grade 

[4th  grade 

ilst  grade 
2nd  grade 
3rd  grade 
4th  grade 
fist  grade 

Roasters  43  to  47  pounds )  2nd  grade 

1 3rd  grade 
[4th  grade 

ilst  grade 
2nd  grade 
3rd  grade 
4th  grade 
{1st  grade 
2nd  grade 
3rd  grade 
4th  grade 

Sixty-Five 


PROGRESSIVE        POL'LTRY        RAISING 

Class  WeiRht  Grade 

{1st  grade 
2nd  grade 
3rd  grade 
4th  grade 

All  of  the  foregoing  came  out  of  the  broilers  and 
springs  of  the  live  classification. 

In  addition  some  packers  have  a  further  classifi- 
cation called  C  Roasters  packed  in  three  weights,  42 
pounds  and  under,  43  to  48  pounds  and  49  pounds  and 
higher  which  are  the  stags  of  the  live  weight  classifica- 
tion. Others  work  the  stags  into  the  lower  grades  of 
roasters  of  the  proper  weights. 

Class  WeiEht  Grade 

(1st  grade 
2nd  grade 
3rd  grade 
4th  grade 
{1st  grade 
2nd  grade 
3rd  grade 
4th  grade 
fist  grade 
2nd  grade 
3rd  grade 
4th  grade 
{1st  grade 
2nd  grade 
3rd  grade 
4th  grade 
{1st  grade 
2nd  grade 
3rd  grade 
4th  grade 
{1st  grade 
2nd  grade 
3rd  grade 
4th  grade 
The  foregoing  are  the  fowl  of  the  live  weight  classi- 
fication. 

Capons  are  divided  into  light  and  heavy  with  72 
pounds  as  the  dividing  point.  Slips  are  sold  in  mixed 
weights  as  are  also  old  roosters. 

Sixty-Six 


PROGRESSIVE        POULTRY        RAISING 

The  several  grades  of  the  different  classes  and 
weights  are  usually  sold  under  various  trade  names  or 
brands  by  different  packers.  In  general  the  first  grade 
chickens  show  the  full  effect  of  milk  feeding,  have  the 
perfect  bleach  which  comes  from  such  feeding  and  are 
free  from  all  blemishes,  very  even  in  quality  and  size. 
They  are  suitable  for  the  most  discriminating  trade. 
The  second  grade  also  shows  the  full  effect  of  milk 
feeding  and  is  similar  to  the  first  grade  except  that  it 
may  show  slight  defects  in  dressing. 

The  third  grade  are  milk  fed  but  do  not  show  the 
full  effects  of  the  feeding.  Birds  that  show  pin  feathers 
or  other  marked  defects  in  dressing  are  included.  In 
the  fourth  grade  are  included  birds  that  are  extremely 
pin  feathery,  have  torn  skin,  broken  wings  or  are  de- 
formed. 

Grades  of  Dressed  Turkeys — Turkeys  are  packed 
according  to  their  live  weight  classification  in  three 
grades — namely  No.   1,  No.  2  and  culls. 

Picking,  Packing  and  Shipping — When  received 
at  the  packing  house  all  broilers  and  springs  are  milk 
fed  in  crates  or  batteries,  for  at  least  ten  days  and  all 
fowl  for  at  least  five  days.  Other  classes  of  poultry 
are  not  fed.  On  the  last  morning  of  the  feeding  period 
the  birds  are  given  nothing  but  water  which  is  kept 
before  them  from  early  morning  until  they  are  sent 
to  the  killing  floor.  This  is  for  the  purpose  of  flushing 
out  their  crops. 

After  the  birds  are  killed  by  sticking  and  neatly 
picked,  their  heads  and  feet  are  washed,  and  their 
heads  wrapped  in  parchment  paper.  They  are  then 
placed  on  racks  and  taken  to  the  chill  room  which  is 
held  at  a  temperature  of  33°  to  35°F.  They  are  kept 
in  this  room  until  their  internal  temperature  does  not 
exceed  35°  F.,  which  usually  takes  at  least  24  hours. 

Sixty-Seven 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY   RAISING 

From  the  chill  room  they  are  taken  into  the  grading 
room  where  they  are  sorted  according  to  quality  and 
size. 

All  broilers  and  fryers  up  to  36  pounds  to  the  dozen 
are  individually  wrapped  in  parchment  paper  and 
packed  one  dozen  to  the  box.  Fryers  over  36  pounds, 
roasters  and  fowl  are  not  wrapped  but  are  packed  one 
dozen  to  the  box. 

When  the  birds  are  finally  graded  and  packed  they 
are  put  in  a  cooler  of  not  over  33°  F.  temperature. 
The  boxes  are  placed  upside  down  and  held  until 
enough  stock  is  accumulated  to  make  a  carload. 
During  the  summer  months  poultry  is  placed  in  a 
freezer  below  zero  and  hard  chilled  for  72  hours. 
While  this  does  not  freeze  the  birds  clear  through  it 
stiffens  them  to  such  a  degree  that  they  can  be  shipped 
a  considerable  distance  without  spoilage. 

The  receiver  of  poultry  must  be  extremely  careful 
as  to  the  manner  in  which  he  handles  it.  It  should  be 
put  immediately  into  a  cooler  of  not  to  exceed  33°  F. 
unless  the  stock  is  sold  the  day  of  arrival.  Where 
there  are  facilities  for  holding  the  poultry  at  a  tem- 
perature below  freezing  they  should  be  made  use  of 
without  fail.  In  either  event  great  care  must  be  taken 
that  the  temperature  does  not  fluctuate,  for  poultry 
held  at  15°  one  day  and  25°  the  next,  is  practically 
sure  to  mould. 

Principal  Poultry  Outlets — Seventy-five  to 
eighty  percent  of  the  poultry  handled  by  the  packing 
houses  is  marketed  in  the  east,  particularly  in  Boston, 
New  York,  Philadelphia  and  surrounding  territory. 
Broilers  are  largely  consumed  by  hotels  and  restaurants. 
The  bulk  of  the  frying  chickens  are  exported,  England 
taking  by  far  the  most  of  them.  Roasting  chickens 
are  consumed  by  all  classes  of  trade,  but  particularly 
the  eastern  and  southern  resorts.  The  fowl  are  con- 
sumed by  all  classes  and  conditions  of  trade. 

SixXy-Eight 


PROGRESSIVE        POULTRY        RAISING 

Relation  of  Price  to  Grade — Poultry  that  costs 
18  cents  alive  delivered  at  the  packing  house  becomes 
a  finished  product  at  a  cost  of  at  least  7  cents  a  pound. 
This  seven  cents  covers  the  milk  feeding  cost,  dressing, 
shrinkage,  picking  and  packing  labor,  refrigeration  and 
other  overhead  expenses.  A  carload  of  live  poultry 
costing  18  cents  into  the  packing  house  will  come  out 
at  about  25  cents  packed  as  an  average  of  all  grades. 

The  percentage  of  the  different  grades  of  dressed 
poultry  coming  out  of  the  average  car  of  live  poultry 
varies  with  different  packers  because  the  severity  of 
the  grading  varies.  Some  houses  set  a  very  high  stand- 
ard for  the  first  grade  and  get  less  than  18  percent 
firsts.  On  the  average,  however,  there  will  usually  be 
about  25  percent  first  grades,  55  percent  seconds,  15 
percent  thirds  and  five  percent  fourth  grades  and 
rejects  (birds  unfit  for  consumption  which  are  burned). 

On  the  basis  of  the  percentages  given,  when  the 
average  price  is  25  cents,  the  first  grade  should  move  at 
about  32  cents,  the  second  grade  at  around  30,  the 
third  at  around  24  cents,  with  the  fourth  grade  bringing 
about  18  cents.  Prices  are  fixed  by  the  supply  on  the 
one  hand  and  market  demands  on  the  other,  both  of 
which  vary  and  at  times  some  grades  and  classes  will  be 
quite  out  of  line  with  the  foregoing,  but  it  is  fairly  repre- 
sentative of  the  relative  levels  of  market  quotations. 


Sixty-Nine 


PROGRESSIVE         POULTRY         RAISING 

Chapter  XIV 

The  Seasonal  Trade  in 
Poultry  Products 

The  Seasonal  Production  of  Eggs — According  to 
the  Bureau  of  Statistics,  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture,  as  shown  in  their  Bulletin  No.  101,  49.8 
percent  or  practically  half  of  the  egg  crop  of  the  United 
States  is  produced  in  the  four  months  of  March,  April, 
May  and  June,  though  July  and  August  are  usually 
counted  as  part  of  the  egg  season.  The  flush  (point 
of  highest  production)  usually  falls  in  April  though  in 
1906  and  1909  it  fell  in  May. 

This  date  is  somewhat  earlier  in  the  southern  states 
than  in  the  northern.  The  heavy  lay  in  Tennessee  and 
Kentucky  is  from  December  until  April.  In  March 
and  April,  southern  Ohio  and  Missouri  stocks  appear 
on  the  market,  helped  along  by  Texas,  southern  Mis- 
souri and  southern  Kansas.  In  the  later  spring, 
northern  Kansas,  Iowa,  Indiana,  Illinois  and  the 
Central  States  generally  have  their  heavy  producing 
season,  and  it  is  when  this  occurs  that  eggs  are  best 
and  most  plentiful.  Minnesota  and  Michigan  with  a 
still  later  season,  help  out  somewhat  when  the  supply 
of  the  central  states  begins  to  fail. 

The  mean  percentage  of  the  national  egg  crop  pro- 
duced each  month  is  shown  in  Table  8  and  presented 
graphically  in  Figure  4. 

Table  8. — The  Mean  Percentage  of  the  National  Egg  Crop 
Produced  Each  Month. 

January 6.6  July 9.6 

Febnjary 7.1  August 8.6 

March 12.4  September 6.2 

April 13.4  October 4.2 


May 13.3        November 3.1 

June 10.7        December 4.3 


Seventy 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY   RAISING 


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Jam   Feb.   Mar.  Apr.  May  June  July   Aug.  Sept.  Oct.  Nov.  Dec 

Fig.  4.— Graphic  presentation  of  the  mean  percent  of  the  national 
egg  crop  produced  each  month,  and  of  the  mean  percent  of  poultry 
receipts  at  a  central  western  packing  house  each  month  for  the 
period  1910  to  1920,  inclusive. 


PROGRESSIVE        POULTRY        RAISING 

The  Seasonal  Marketing  of  Poultry — The  poul- 
try season  usually  begins  in  July  and  lasts  until  about 
the  first  of  January.  The  most  of  the  broilers  are 
accumulated  and  stored  during  July  and  August.  The 
season  for  storing  frying  chickens  is  roughly  September 
and  October,  while  the  year's  supply  of  roasting 
chickens  and  fowl  are  accumulated  during  the  months 
of  October,  November,  December  and  to  some  extent 
in  January,  with  the  heaviest  receipt  falling  in  Novem- 
ber. The  mean  percentage  of  the  annual  poultry 
crop  marketed  each  month,  as  indicated  by  packing 
house  receipts  is  shown  in  Table  9  and  presented 
graphically  in  Figure  4. 

Table  9. — Mean  Percent  of  the  Annual  Poultry  Crop  Marketed 

Each  Month  as  Shown  by  the  Receipts  at  a  Central  Western 

Packing  House  for  the  Period  191  o  to  1920  Inclusive. 

January 5.41  July 6.50 

February 3.98  August 9.88 

March 3.81  September 11.46 

April 2.85  October 14.49 

May 4 .  82  November 16 .  45 

June 5.86  December 14.49 

It  must  be  understood  that  these  seasons  are  longer 
and  are  hardly  so  clearly  defined  as  the  seasons  for 
strawberries  and  vegetables.  They  are  sufficiently 
marked,  however,  so  that  during  the  egg  season  prac- 
tically the  whole  force  at  a  packing  establishment  is 
employed  in  packing  eggs.  The  transition  from  the 
egg  season  to  the  poultry  season  is  somewhat  gradual, 
but  in  October,  November  and  December  the  whole 
force  is  busy  packing  poultry. 

This  discussion,  of  course,  applies  to  the  general 
condition.  Both  eggs  and  poultry  may  be  and  are 
produced  out  of  season. 

Out-of-Season  Products — Specialized  poultry 
farms  east  and  west,  and  indeed  in  increasing  numbers 

Seventy-Two 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY   RAISING 

in  the  central  states  make  a  practice  of  furnishing 
poultry  products  out  of  season.  Very  many  general 
farms  secure  a  few  eggs  during  the  winter,  and  with  a 
little  care  and  attention  may  get  more.  As  previously 
noted,  however,  farmers  specializing  on  out-of-season 
broilers  and  eggs  bear  much  the  same  relation  to  the 
general  production  of  poultry  that  truck  gardeners 
who  raise  radishes,  lettuce,  and  tomatoes  under  arti- 
ficial heat  bear  to  the  general  production  of  vegetables. 
Fresh  winter  eggs,  like  winter  radishes  and  lettuce,  are 
out  of  season  products  and  must  be  paid  for  as  such. 
For  most  persons,  the  fruit  and  vegetables  eaten  in 
winter  must  be  preserved  by  canning  and  saved  over 
from  the  previous  season.  The  eggs  eaten  out  of 
season  by  most  of  the  consuming  public  must  also  be 
preserved,  usually  in  cold  storage. 

The  Turkey  Season — Ninety-five  percent  of  the 
turkeys  are  killed,  dressed  and  marketed  during  No- 
vember and  December.  About  seventy-five  percent 
of  all  the  turkeys  consumed  in  the  United  States  are 
sold  for  the  Thanksgiving  and  Christmas  trade.  A 
comparatively  small  quantity  marketed  at  Christmas 
time,  is  stored.  The  Thanksgiving  turkeys  are  usually 
not  fully  grown  or  fat.  The  extra  month's  feed  gives 
them  a  much  better  finish.  They  can  then  be  suc- 
cessfully frozen,  and  thaw  out  bright  and  clear. 
This  freezer  stock  is  used  almost  exclusively  by  the 
hotel  trade,  some  of  the  larger  hotels  having  turkey 
on  their  menu  the  year  around. 


Seventy-Three 


PROGRESSIVE    POULTRY    RAISING 


Chapter  XV 

The  Import  and  Export  Trade 

Imports  and  Exports  of  Eggs — For  the  five  years 
ending  June  30,  1920,  the  average  annual  imports  of 
eggs  were  only  1,131,602  dozens.  During  the  same 
period  the  average  annual  exports  of  eggs  were  27,400,- 
313  dozens.  These  figures  refer  to  eggs  in  the  shell. 
A  rather  recent  development  is  the  importation  of  con- 
siderable quantities  of  dried  and  frozen  eggs,  chiefly 
from  China.  During  the  five  years  ending  June  30, 
1920,  the  average  annual  imports  of  this  class  of  goods 
were  12,822,693  pounds  valued  at  $3,727,661.  During 
the  same  period  the  average  value  of  the  exports  of  the 
same  class  of  goods  was  only  $286,425. 

Table  10. — Import  of  Eggs  into  the  United  States,  by  Countries, 
for  Fiscal  Years  Ending  June  30* 


Years 

Denmark 

(doz.) 

Germany 

(doz.) 

Russia 
(doz.) 

United 

Kingdom 

(doz.) 

Austria- 
Hungary 
(doz) 

Rou- 
mania 
(doz.) 

Canada 

(doz.) 

1906 

53 

181 

59 

128 

498.786 

1.280.486 

688.915 

1.127.531 

360.872 

12.756 

16.520 

1907 

10 

3 

1.816 

5 

33.121 

1908 

28.022 

1909 
1910 
191  1 

3 

12,001 

562 

4 

10 

1.847,237 

64.200 

55  301 

360 

39  810 

35.272 

1912 

25.817 

1913 

"388,632' 
3,540 

16.894 

1914 
1915 
1916 

5,880 
35,080 

1.009.028 

57.14 

3  56.962 
735.625 

225.708 

1917 

752 

441.151 

1918 

778,200 

1919' 

1 
68 
120 

325,846 

1920' 

276  392 

192  P 

794,068 

'Statement  prepared  by  foreign  markets  service,  bureau  of  markets. 
'Calender  year. 


Seventy-Four 


PROGRESSIVE        POULTRY        RAISING 

Table  10  (Cont'd) — Imports  of  Eggs  into  the  United  States, 
by  Countries,  for  Fiscal  Years  Ending  June  30* 


Argen- 

Hong 

All 

Years 

Mexico 

tina 

China 

kong 

Japan 

other 

Total 

(doz.) 

(doz.) 

(doz.) 

(doz.) 

(doz.) 

(doz.) 

(doz.) 

1906 

2.250 

100.861 

120.750 

600 

241.034 

1907 

925 

85.431 

111.801 

380 

10 

231.859 

1908 

431 

91,386 

111.375 

25 

188 

231  939 

1909 

17.200 

98.817 

114.778 

522 

85 

288.650 

1910 

10.458 

130,326 

123.458 

3.000 

63 

818.267 

1911 

3,135 

122.015 

130.357 

50 

1,517 

1.573.394 

1912 

14.047 

114.958 

122.364 

990 

5,958 

973.053 

1913 

500 

95.639 

124.110 

1.405 

1,137 

1.367.226 

1914 

4.663 

1.895.618 

69,079 

7.915 

12.929 

6.014,955 

1915 

67.404 

2.035,862 

85.744 

5.670 

750 

3,046.631 

1916 

1.855 

15.000 

320.718 

161.464 

7.821 

732,566 

1917 

200 

464.568 

159.116 

44.465 

70 

1.110.322 

1918 

5 

479.617 

121.223 

236.420 

3.604 

1.619.069 

1919 

90 

474.502 

240,286 

84,086 

122,5503 

1.247.355 

1920 

21.000 

846,863 

269,567 

84  755 

210.056* 

1,708.701 

1921 

210 

309,000 

1.131  514 

475,422 

232.737 

119,5305 

^Statement  prepared  by  Foreign  Markets  Service.  Bureau  of  Markets. 

•Australia. 

'Australia  209.718  dozen. 


Table  11. —  Exports  of  Eggs  from  the  United  States,  by  Countries, 
for  Fiscal  Years  Ending  June  30' 


Year 

United 
Kingdom 

Canada 
(doz.) 

Panama 
(doz.) 

Mexic 
(doz.) 

1906 

182.570 

2.770 

197.720 

7,275 

910 

2,330 

58,470 

51,055 

6,001 

7,395,143 

8,255.909 

4,359,192 

3,679.795 

12.330,488 

11.521,631 

4,062,881 

425,648 

742,220 

1.159.626 

866,609 

868,454 

2.457,188 

8.697,568 

12.856,690 

9.064.948 

6.116,988 

7,916,534 

10,850,678 

5,216.179 

3,091,982 

11,014,980 

7,350.732 

113.380 

288,027 
553.225 
591.374 
591.673 
848,667 
791,065 
818.470 
794.286 
621.250 
852,960 
849,508 
681.921 
737.830 
618.065 
831.105 

776  271 

1907  

941  807 

1908                        .    ... 

930  775 

1909 

631  194 

1910 

585  540 

1911 

688  022 

1912 

776  459 

1913        

847  615 

1914 

485  842 

1915 

143  693 

1916     

447  818 

1917 

1  170  450 

1918 

1  301  495 

1919 

2.091  073 

1920 

1  521  573 

192P 

5.936.196 

'Statement  prepared  by  Foreign  Markets  Service.  Bureau  of  Markets. 
'Calendar  year. 


Seventy-Five 


PROGRESSIVE        POULTRY        RAISING 

Table  11  (Cont'd) — Exports  of  Eggs  from  the  United  States, 
by  Countries,  for  Fiscal  Years  Ending  June  30' 


Year 

Cuba 
(doz.) 

Argentina 
(doz.) 

Other 

Countries 

(doz.) 

Total 
(doz.) 

1906 

3.275.391 
4.889.701 
4.682.950 
3.055,706 
3.220.037 
4.499,211 
4.999.958 
5.721.200 
5.651.261 
5.290.945 
8.046.128 
7.447.257 
7.996.499 
9.804.376 
12.402.771 
15.015.726 

178.803 

104.460 

66.681 

54.993 

59.322 

83,294 

91.089 

112.860 

146.511 

261.171 

309,684 

225.000 

93.218 

329.034 

1 .247.966 

94.647 

4  952.063 

1907. 

6  968  985 

1908 

7.590.977 

1909 

5  207  151 

1910 

5.325.936 

1911 

8.558.712 

1912 

15.405.609 

1913 

1.5000 

20.409.390 

1914 

16  148  849 

1915 

955,234 

567.173 

24.330 

60 

20.784.424 

1916 , 

26.396.206 

1917 

24.926.424 

1918. 

18.969  167 

1919 

28  384  783 

1920                           

38.326.986 

192P 

33.291.287 

•Statement  prepared  by  Foreign  Markets  Service.  Bureau  of  Markets. 
^Calendar  year. 


Table  12. — Imports  of  Dried  and  Frozen  Eggs,  for  Fiscal 
Years  Ending  June  30 

Year                                                                             Pounds  Value 

1910 869,923  $56,121 

1911 433,405  30,798 

1912 43,822  4,430 

1913 228,305  36,892 

1914 3,420,412  504,619 

1915 8,571,758  798,129 

1916 6,021,672  921,502 

1917 10,317,744  1,732,948 

1918 14,597,503  4.057,417 

1919 9,085,449  3.143,190 

1920 24,091,098  8.783.258 

1921' 17.898,019  3.166.701 

•Calendar  year. 


Seventy-Si 


PROGRESSIVE        POULTRY        RAISING 


Table  13. — Exports  of  Dried  and  Frozen  Eggs,  for  Fiscal 
Years  Ending  June  30 

1910 $  3.585 

1911 5,353 

1912 29.541 

1913 67,854 

1914 47,968 

1915 88,865 

1916 210.265 

1917 72.491 

1918 525.880 

1919 341.304 

1920 282.198 

192P 155,917 

'Calendar  year. 

Exports  of  Poultry — Unfortunately  no  statement 
of  the  imports  of  poultry  seems  to  be  available  and  the 
only  report  of  the  exports  is  in  combination  with  a 
report  of  the  exports  of  game.  The  total  value  of  the 
exports  of  poultry  and  game  is  given  for  each  year 
from  1906  to  1920  in  Table  14. 

Table  14. — Total  Exports  of  Poultry  and  Game  from  the  United 
States  for  the  Fiscal  Years.  Ending  June  30 

1906 $1,397,004 

1907 1,086,618 

1908 881.792 

1909 848,644 

1910 599,548 

1911 981.805 

1912 697,955 

1913 1.303.399 

1914 913,632 

1915 1.187.771 

1916 1,561,398 

1917 1,327.348 

1918 1,241.144 

1919 3.799,348 

1920 1,627,633 

Seventy-Seven 


PROGRESSIVE        POULTRY        RAISING 

REFERENCES 

GENERAL  BOOKS 

"Poultry  Production,"* 

By  Wm.  A.  Lippincott.     Published  by  Lea  6j  Febiger,  Phila- 
delphia. 
"Productive  Poultry  Husbandry," 

By  H.  H    Lewis.     Published  by    Lippincott    Pub.  Co.,  Phila- 
delphia. 
"Poultry  Breeding  and  Management," 

By  James  Dryden.     Published  by  Orange-Judd  Pub.  Co.,  New 
York. 
"Poultry  Culture,  Sanitation  and  Hygiene," 

By  B.  F.  Kaupp.     Published  by  W.  B.  Saunders  Co.,  Phila- 
delphia. 
"Poultry  Breeding," 

By  Miller  Purvis.     Published  by  Breeders'  Gazette,  Chicago. 

BREEDING 

"The  Mating  and  Breeding  of  Poultry," 

By  Harry  Lamon  and  Robert  Slocum.     Published  by  Orange- 
Judd  Pub.  Co.,  New  York. 

"Pedigreeing  Poultry,"  Circular  No.  67, 
Kansas  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

"Improving  Mongrel  Farm  Flocks  Through  Selected  Standardbred 
Cockerels,"  Bulletin  No.  223,  Kansas  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station. 

"Profitable  Culling  and  Selective  Flock  Breeding."  Published  by 
Reliable  Poultry  Publishing  Co.,  Dayton,  Ohio. 

"Cull  the  Flock."  Circular  123,  Wisconsin  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station. 

"Culling  Farm  Poultry."  Circular  93,  Kansas  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station. 

THE  BREEDS 

The  Standard  Varieties  of  Chickens. 

I.  The  American  Class.     Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  806,  U.  S.  Dept. 

of  Agriculture. 

II.  The  Mediterranean  Class.      Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  898,  U.  S. 

Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

Seventy-Eight 


PROGRESSIVE        POULTRY        RAISING 


'The  Plymouth  Rocks" 

"The  Wyandottes" 

"The  Orpingtons"  I  Published  by  Reliable  Poultry  Pub.  Co., 

■Rhode  Island  Reds"        |       Dayton,  Ohio. 

'The  Leghorns" 

'The  Asiatics"  J 

'Turkey  Raising," 

Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  791,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 
'Duck  Raising," 

Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  697,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 
"Goose  Raising," 

"Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  767,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

HOUSES 

'Poultry  Houses  and  Fixtures," 

Published  bv  Reliable  Poultry  Publishing  Company,  Dayton, 
Ohio. 
"Poultry  Buildings," 

Bulletin  No.  325,  New  Jersey  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 
'Use  of  Artificial  Light  to  Increase  Winter  Egg  Production," 

Published  by  Reliable  Poultry  Publishing  Company,  Dayton, 
Ohio. 

INCUBATION 

'Natural  and  Artificial  Incubation  of  Hens'  Eggs," 

Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  585,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

REARING 
'Rearing  Chickens," 

Bulletin  No.  96,  Storrs  (Conn.)  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 
'Natural  and  Artificial  Brooding  of  Chickens," 

Bulletin  No.  624,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  U.  S.  Dept.  of 

Agriculture. 

PARASITES 

'Mites  and  Lice  on  Poultry," 

Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  801,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


Seventy-Nine 


PROGRESSIVE    POULTRY   RAISING 


CONTENTS 


Introduction 2 

Chapter     I — History    of    American 

Poultry  Production 3 

Place  in  System  of  Farming 3 

Place  of  Poultry  Husbandry   in 

Commerce 3 

Early  Poultry  History  in  America    4 
Later    Development    of   Poultry 

Production 4 

Kind  of  Stock  for  the  Farm 5 

Chapter  II — Breeds  of  Poultry 6 

Early  American  Poultry 6 

Breeds  and  Classes 6 

Egg  Laying  Records  of  the  Com- 
mon Breeds 8 

Choosing  a  Breed 9 

Chapter  1 1 1 — Poultry  Breeding 10 

Methods  of  Breeding 10 

Culling 11 

Characteristics  of  High  Layers. .  .  14 
Characteristics  of  Poor  Layers.  .14 

The  Breeding  Pen 14 

Care  of  Eggs  for  Hatching    15 

I  ncubating 15 

Time  of  Hatching 18 

Farm  Brooders 19 

Chapter  IV — Rearing  Young  Chicks  21 

Feeding  Chicks 2! 

Sour  Milk  the  First  Feed      22 

Feeding  Practice 23 

Green  Feed 25 

Separate  the  Sexes 26 

Location  of  Poultry  House 26 

Essentials  of  Good  Hen  House. .  .27 

Care  of  the  House 29 

Yards 30 

Chapter  V — Poultry  Feeding 31 

Feeding  Laying  Hens 31 

Fattening  for  Slaughter 33 

Chapter  VI — Poultry  Diseases 34 

The  Disease  Problem 34 

Lice  and  Mites 34 

Chapter  VII— Turkeys 36 

Standards 36 

Management 36 

Raising  Poults 37 

Handling  Young  Poults 37 

Feeding  for  Market 39 

Chapter  VI 1 1— Ducks 40 

Management 40 

Breeding 40 

Raising  Young  EXicks 41 

Chapter  IX— Geese 43 

Varieties 43 

Feeding  and  Management 43 

Eighty 


Chapter  X — The  Poultry  Industry.  .45 
Geographic  Distribution  of  Poul- 
try Production 45 

Present  Organization  of  Poultry 

Industry 46 

The  Production-Breeder 46 

Fanciers  and  Fancier  Breeders. .  .47 

The  Producer 47 

The  Custom  Hatcher  and  Baby 

Chick  Dealer 48 

The  Buyer 49 

The  Packer 51 

The  Distributor 51 

The  Magnitude   of  the   Poultry 

Industry 52 

Comparative  Numbers  of  Differ- 
ent Species  of  Poultry 53 

Eggs  the  Principal  Poultry  Prod- 
uct   54 

Farm  Incomes  from  Poultry 55 

Chapter      XI — Poultry      and      Egg 

Prices 57 

Prices  of  Eggs 57 

Prices  of  Poultry  Products 57 

Storage  and  Egg  Prices 58 

Chapter  XII — Grades  and  Classes  of 

Eggs 61 

Grades  of  Eggs 61 

Firsts 61 

Seconds 61 

Checks 62 

Spots 62 

Blood  Rings 62 

Producing  Good  Eggs 62 

Chapter  XIII — Grades  and  Classes 

of  Poultry . .  ; 64 

Market    Classification    of    Live 

Poultry 64 

Grades  of  Dressed  Chickens 65 

Grades  of  Dressed  Turkeys 67 

Picking.  Packing  and  Shipping.  .67 

Principal  Poultry  Outlets 68 

Relation  of  Price  to  Grade 69 

Chapter  XIV — The  Seasonal  Trade 

in  Poultry  Products 70 

The  Seasonal  Production  of  Eggs  70 
The  Seasonal  Marketing  of  Poul- 
try  72 

Out-of-Season  Products 72 

The  Turkey  Season 73 

Chapter  XV — The  Import  and  Ex- 
port Trade 74 

Imports  and  Exports  of  Eggs.  .  .  74 
Exports  of  Poultry 77 

References 78 


Give  the  chickens  a  free  range,  fencing  them  out  of  places  where  they 
are  not  wanted. 


National  Poultry  Associations 

Bufif  Minorca  Club,  Edward  F.  Schmidt,  Secretary,  Hazelrigg,  Ind. 
Bufif  Minorca  Club  of  America,  \Vm.  F.  Williams,  Secretary,  1 102  W. 

52nd  St.,  Los  Angeles,  Cal. 
American  Black  Orpington  Club,  Ora  Overholser,  Secretary,  Me- 

chanicsville  Md. 
American  White  Orpington  Club,  J.  I.  Lysle,  Secretary.  1200  E   7th 

St..  Plainfield.  N.J.  '^ 

National  Rose  Comb  Orpington  Club,  E.  M.  Mengel,  Secretary, 

Auburn,  Pa. 
National  S.  C.  Buff  Orpington  Club,  Harold  N.  Bush,   Secretary, 

E.  Stroudsburg^^  Pa. 
American  Barred  Plymouth  Rock  Club,  L.  T.  Robinson,  Secretary. 

Union  City,  Mich. 
American  Buff  Plymouth  Rock  Club,  Jas.  H.  Hertz,  Secretary,  Han- 
oven,  Pa. 
American  Columbian  Plymouth  Rock  Club,  T.  J.  Enslin,  Secretary. 

Hackettstown,  N.  J . 
American  White  Plymouth  Rock  Club,  G.  A.  Krueger,  Secretary. 

Plummer,  Minn. 
International  Partridge  Plymouth  Rock  Club,   Roy  W.  Sutton, 

Secretary,  Minneapolis,  Kans. 
American  Polish  Fowl  Club,  Hiram  W.  Schriver,  Secretary,  Groton, 

Conn. 
Rhode  Island  Red  Club  of  America,  W.  H.  Card,  Secretary,  Man- 
chester, Conn. 
Rhode  Island  White  Club  of  America,  Mrs.  E.  Alphonso,  Secretary, 

Union,  Mo. 
National  Bronze  Turkey  Club,  Chas.  E.  Bird,  Secretary,  Meyers- 
dale,  Pa. 
National  Bourbon  Red  Turkey  Club,  Mrs.  Minnie  M.  B,  Brown. 

Secretary,  Appleton  City,  Mo. 
International  Turkey  Club,  Mrs.  Rea  E.  Fowler,  Secy,  Rochelle,  111. 
American  Buff  Wyandotte  Club,  M.  M.  Clark,  Secretary,  West 

Pawlet.  Vt. 
National  Black  Wyandotte  Club,  Bradley  Cook,  Secretary,  Oley,  Pa. 
National  Partridge  Wyandotte  Club,  Paul  D.  Cahow,  Secretary, 

219  E.  Liberty  St.,  Ann  Arbor,  Mich. 
National  Columbian  Wyandotte  Club,  Levi  A.  Ayres    Secretary 

Bo.x  760,  Granville,  N.  Y. 
Silver  Wyandotte  Club  of  America,  A.  E.  Rettig,  Secretary,  3724 

E.  28th  St.,  Brightwood,  Ind. 
International  Silver  Penciled  Wyandotte  Club,  Fred  F.  Field,  Jr.,. 

Secretary,  Montello,  Mass. 
International  Black  Wyandotte  Club,  Ralph  Roudebush,  Secretary, 

Arcadia,  Ind, 
National  White  Wyandotte  Club,  E.  B.  Rose,  Secretary,  E.  Strouds- 

burg,  Pa. 
Waterfowl  Club  of  America.  Stanley  Mason.  Secy,  Albrightsville,  Pa. 


